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Under the 1876 Cruelty to Animals Act it is necessary to recognise pain so that an assessment may be made to determine if it is 'an experiment calculated to give pain' and 'to prevent the animal feeling pain'. Under the conditions of the licence it is also necessary to recognise 'severe pain which is likely to endure' and 'suffering considerable pain'. In the White Paper May 1983 (Command 8883) it is stated that: 'in the application of controls the concept of pain should be applied in a wide sense' and 'the Home Secretary's practice has been to interpret the concept of pain to include disease, other disturbances of normal health, adverse change in physiology, discomfort and distress'. The draft European Convention for the Protection of Vertebrate Animals used for Experimental and other Purposes, aims to control, subject to specific exceptions, any experimental or other scientific procedure which 'may cause pain, suffering, distress or lasting harm'. (The White Paper states that UK control will be stricter than the Council of Europe proposals.) Thus, there is a considerable onus on the experimenter to recognise pain (not to define it) and to alleviate it. It is intended that this article should be of help, not only to newcomers inexperienced in the recognition of pain, but also possibly to those relatively experienced workers who may be called upon to evaluate the pain involved in a new model or an individual animal.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
Vet Rec 1985 Apr 20
PMID:Guidelines on the recognition of pain, distress and discomfort in experimental animals and an hypothesis for assessment. 392 90

The behaviour of normal cows in cubicles was compared with that of normal cows in a straw yard and that of lame cows in cubicles. The normal cows in a straw yard lay down for longer in total (9.6 hours vs 6.8 hours) and during the night (8.55 hours vs 4.75 hours) and for significantly longer at a time (3.95 hours vs 2.45 hours) than normal cows in cubicles. The normal cows in a straw yard spent more time lying down and ruminating (5.1 hours) than normal cows in cubicles (3.3 hours). Lame cows in cubicles lay down for significantly longer during the day (3.3 hours) than normal cows in cubicles (2.1 hours). Although lameness did not affect the total time the cows spent in feeding and rumination, lame cows moved about less, and they adopted abnormal postures suggesting discomfort.
Vet Rec 1993 Aug 28
PMID:Behaviour of lame and normal dairy cows in cubicles and in a straw yard. 823 23

The welfare implications of lameness in dairy cattle are considerable, and in addition to causing great pain and discomfort to the animals it is detrimental to productivity. This study investigated the differences in behaviour of lame and normal cows during the summer. Their rank of entry and behaviour in the milking parlour were examined. Lame cows entered the parlour later than normal cows (P < 0.01), and were significantly more restless on their feet while being milked (P < 0.01). When cows were at pasture the lame cows lay down for longer (P < 0.01) and grazed for shorter periods than the normal cows (P < 0.01). All cows ruminated for longer periods when lying down than when standing, but the difference was significant only for the lame cows (P < 0.01). In addition, lame cows had significantly lower bite rates than normal cows (P < 0.01). The behavioural differences between lame and normal cows indicated that lameness had serious effects on the welfare and productivity of lame cows.
Vet Rec 1993 Jun 05
PMID:Effects of lameness on the behaviour of cows during the summer. 833 1

The results are reported of a six-week clinical trial of the efficacy of 0.2 per cent cyclosporine ophthalmic ointment for the treatment of chronic idiopathic keratoconjunctivitis sicca in dogs in the United Kingdom, Germany and France. The 87 dogs were referral cases with a history of chronic unresponsive keratoconjunctivitis sicca of which the aetiology was unknown, and they had to meet stringent criteria before being included in the trial. The clinical response to the therapy was monitored after seven, 21 and 42 days and the results for the right and left eyes were analysed separately. There was a statistically significant increase in lacrimal secretion throughout the study, with most of the increase occurring during the first week of treatment. The percentage of eyes with improved lacrimal secretion was higher in the dogs with initial Schirmer tear test values > or = 2 mm/min than in those with initial values of 0 or 1 mm/min. The observed steady improvement in conjunctival health was not always correlated with an improvement in lacrimal secretion. The incidence of blepharospasm, other signs of discomfort and corneal oedema decreased significantly during the study. No improvement in corneal vascularisation or pigmentation was observed during the six-week trial. Overall, 76 per cent of the left eyes and 87 per cent of the right eyes were considered to have improved at the end of the treatment period. No serious adverse reactions were observed and only mild irritation was noticed by the owners immediately after the application of the ointment. This irritation resulted in the recording of an adverse reaction at the scheduled observations in only three cases.
Vet Rec 1995 Nov 11
PMID:Treatment of keratoconjunctivitis sicca in dogs with cyclosporine ophthalmic ointment: a European clinical field trial. 858 75

Seventy-two healthy dogs required sedation and analgesia for a variety of procedures causing discomfort or pain. They were treated either with the alpha 2-agonist medetomidine at 40 micrograms/kg (15 intravenously and 17 intramuscularly), or 80 micrograms/kg (15 intravenously and 15 intramuscularly) or with xylazine plus l-methadone (1.0 mg)(10 intravenously). The levels of sedation, analgesia and safety were compared clinically and by measurements of the effects on the electrocardiogram (ECG) and blood gases, body temperature, haematology and clinical chemistry. Sedation was achieved reliably with both medetomidine and xylazine plus l-methadone but its onset, depth and duration were influenced by the dose and route of administration. In the medetomidine-treated dogs, intravenous administration resulted in more rapid sedation and the effects of the higher dose were deeper and longer lasting. The small dogs receiving 40 micrograms/kg may have been underdosed. The initial analgesic effects in response to a pin prick to the body surface were sufficient and similar for both drugs, except for the intramuscular dose of 40 micrograms/kg medetomidine. Analgesia for the clinical procedures was less reliable with medetomidine and was not always adequate even at the high dose, but xylazine plus l-methadone assured analgesia in almost every case. Medetomidine resulted in marked bradycardia, lasting as long as the sedation and the ECG revealed a sinus arrhythmia with sinoatrial and atrioventricular blocks grade I and II as a sign of interference with transduction. The bradycardia with xylazine plus l-methadone was less pronounced. A decrease in respiratory rate accompanying sedation had no influence on blood gases and blood acidity in the dogs treated with medetomidine but caused a respiratory acidosis with xylazine plus l-methadone. Body temperature decreased with all treatments for the duration of the period of sedation. Blood glucose concentration increased to a similar extent in all treatment groups, but all other haematological and clinicochemical variables remained unchanged. Treatment with the specific alpha 2 antagonist, atipamezole, reversed the sedation and cardiovascular and pulmonary effects due to medetomidine within minutes.
Vet Rec 1996 Feb 10
PMID:Clinical comparison of medetomidine with xylazine/l-methadone in dogs. 865 Sep 15

In the United Kingdom pigs can spend up to 11 hours in transit to slaughter but on average travel for two to three hours. In the past, international journeys have lasted up to 40 hours and have been over 900 miles long. There is evidence that pigs, like calves and sheep, but unlike adult cattle, prefer to lie down if provided with suitable conditions, particularly bedding, on the vehicle. They will, however, sometimes stand during short journeys, possibly when excessive vibration or uncomfortable flooring, particularly a lack of sufficient bedding, cause discomfort. Current UK legislation and EU Directive 95/29/EC specify that, in general, pigs must have sufficient space to lie down during transit. Measurements of the space needed for sternal recumbency, and direct observations of pigs at different stocking densities, suggest that the minimum space required is equivalent to about 250 kg/m2 for normal slaughter pigs of 90 to 100 kg liveweight. This figure may not be appropriate for very small or very large pigs. In the UK at present, more than half of all slaughter pigs are transported at densities greater than that prescribed (235 kg/m2) in the EU Directive. At stocking densities above about 250 kg/m2 there may not be enough room available for all the pigs to lie down, leading to continual disturbance of recumbent animals by those seeking a place to rest. A stocking density of 322 kg/m2 leads to clear evidence of physical stress. During long journeys (> or = 25 hours) meat quality is reduced by high stocking densities, implying muscle glycogen depletion and possibly fatigue. Higher stocking densities are also associated with higher mortality. There is evidence of wide variations in air temperature inside transporters, particularly for international journeys. Although there are small variations within vehicles, the temperature of the air inside is closely related to the outside temperature. It has been recommended that the temperature within the vehicle should not exceed 30 degrees C in order to remain within the pig's thermoneutral zone. Such temperatures, together with acceptably low concentrations of potentially noxious gases, such as carbon dioxide, can be achieved in moving vehicles by adequate ventilation, provided there is adequate space above the animals' heads. In triple-decked lorries, the height between decks has tended to be reduced and can be as little as 90 cm. Further work is needed to decide whether this is sufficient for modern slaughter pigs.
Vet Rec 1998 Apr 25
PMID:Choosing appropriate space allowances for slaughter pigs transported by road: a review. 960 13

This study assessed the effects of suckled sucrose and parenteral carprofen treatment on behavioural measurements of discomfort and serum haptoglobin concentration in lambs following rubber ring castration and/or tail docking. Twenty-eight male and 20 ewe lambs were allocated to either a male or ewe lamb control group (n=4) or to one of three male and two ewe lamb treatment groups (n=8). Male lambs in one treatment group received carprofen subcutaneously (0.5 mg/kg) 30 minutes before castration and docking. Lambs in all other treatment groups suckled sucrose or colostrum immediately before castration and/or tail docking. Behavioural measurements of discomfort were made following castration or tail docking in treatment groups and also in control animals which were not castrated or tail docked. Blood sampling of animals in treatment groups for analysis of serum haptoglobin, an acute phase protein used as an indicator of an acute inflammatory response, was performed before castration or docking and at 24 and 48 hours after castration or docking. Control lambs were blood sampled at 0, 24 and 48 hours following behavioural assessment Neither suckled sucrose nor carprofen treatment altered discomfort behaviour associated with castration or tail docking. Haptoglobin levels following castration or tail docking remained close to the detection limits of the assay and were similar to those recorded in control animals.
Vet Rec 2001 Sep 15
PMID:Analgesia of newborn lambs before castration and tail docking with rubber rings. 1158 26

Carriage journeys in England during the eighteenth century were notoriously dangerous. Rutted and pot-holed roads exacerbated the deficiencies in steering, springing and stability. In 1758 the young Dr. Erasmus Darwin (1731-1802; F. R. S. 1761) was travelling about 10,000 miles a year in visits to patients from his house at Lichfield. To alleviate the danger and discomfort of his journey, he developed a design for improved carriage steering and stability, which he road-tested over 20,000 miles on two carriages. In 1765 Richard Lovell Edgeworth (1744-1817; F. R. S. 1718) heard about Darwin's design, urged the Society of Arts to enquire about it, and then visited Darwin himself. With the aid of manuscripts from the Archive of the Royal Society of Arts and elsewhere, I offer a reconstruction of Darwin's improved method of steering, which relies on four jointed rods, initially in the form of an isosceles trapezium. The mechanism was reinvented more than 50 years later, and came to be used widely in early modern cars.
Notes Rec R Soc Lond 2002 Jan
PMID:Erasmus Darwin's improved design for steering carriages and cars. 1194 79

Horses need to be sedated before they are investigated by transcranial magnetic stimulation because of the mild discomfort induced by the evoked muscle contraction and the noise of stimulation. This paper describes the influence of a combination of detomidine (10 microg/kg bodyweight) and a low dose of buprenorphine (2.4 microg/kg) on the onset latency and peak-to-peak amplitude of magnetic motor-evoked potentials in normal horses. There were no significant differences between measurements of these parameters made before the horses were sedated and measurements made 10 and 30 minutes after the drugs were administered.
Vet Rec 2003 Apr 26
PMID:Influence of detomidine and buprenorphine on motor-evoked potentials in horses. 1273 2

Different from the classic view, the prostate is not a gland exclusive to the male, also being an organ of the female genital system presenting morphofunctional similarity between human and rodent. Thus structural, ultrastructural, morphometric-stereological features of the female prostate (Skene's paraurethral gland) and steroid serological levels were evaluated during young, adult, and senile ages in the Mongolian gerbil. The morphofunctional precocity of the female gland in comparison with the male gland occurring in young gland is probably associated with the female circulating steroid levels. The hormonal imbalance in senesce coincides with its susceptibility to histopathological lesions, such as epithelial hypertrophy, metaplasia, and intraepithelial neoplasia. Differently than that of males, the aging degeneration of the female gland involves the accumulation of lipofuscin granules. However, the alterations in senile prostate did not damage its functionality. These analyses reinforce the use of this experimental model for the comprehension of glandular morphofunctional aspects with special attention to senescence. Thus, the appreciation of this organ becomes relevant to avoid future discomfort to women's health.
Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2008 Apr
PMID:Aging effects on the mongolian gerbil female prostate (Skene's paraurethral glands): structural, ultrastructural, quantitative, and hormonal evaluations. 1823 85


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