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Male rats (N = 27) were given initial experience with escapable shock, equivalent amounts of inescapable shock, or no shock. Measures were then obtained in the ensuing 15 hours on food intake, water intake, number of cage crossings, and weight change for all groups. Following this, animals were tested on an escape task. Inescapably shocked animals showed significant decreases in food and water consumption in comparison to both nonshocked and escapably shocked control rats. Weight gains were significantly decreased by exposure to shock irrespective of the availability of a coping response. Consistency of these findings with proposals suggesting that exposure to inescapable shock leads to a state of animal depression (learned helplessness) is discussed and compared to alternative stress explanations.
J Gen Psychol 1977 Apr
PMID:The applicability of inescapable shock as a source of animal depression. 55 62

In order to establish a secondary drive based on thirst, 16 male albino rats were deprived of water for 23 hours per day for 14 days in square cages. At the end of each 23-hour period, the Ss were placed in triangular cages with free access to water for 1/2 hour followed by 1/2 hour in a circular cage with no water available. On day 15 the Ss were divided into two groups following satiation in the triangular cage. The control Ss were placed in the circular cages with water present for the first time, and experimental Ss were placed in the square cages with water present for the first time. During this 1/2-hour period the experimental Ss drank significantly more than the control Ss which indicated the presence of thirst fear in the experimental group.
J Gen Psychol 1976 Apr
PMID:Establishment of a secondary drive based on thirst: a replication. 95 88

Studies employing response prevention (RP) are reviewed. Considering assessment difficulties and conflicting findings, it is questionable whether RP actually reduces fear to a conditioned stimulus (CS). This study measured fear after RP via a conditioned emotional response (CER) paradigm. Hypotheses were that fear of an auditory CS (conditioned in an avoidance paradigm) is reduced during RP, and that fear conditioning would occur to aspects of the conditioning environment per se. Also evaluated was the effectiveness of RP when fear had been learned under two different conditions: (a) avoidance or (b) classical defensive conditioning. Seven groups of 10 experimentally naive female rats were run. Animals were initially trained to bar press for food pellets on a variable interval (VI) 2 schedule. Three groups were then avoidance trained in a two-way shuttle box to a criterion of 10 successive avoidances. Immediately following acquisition, one group received RP (blocking) in the shuttle box (Condition A-B). This consisted of placing a door between the two sides of the box and presenting the 85 dB (A) white noise CS for 15 20-sec periods with a variable 1-min interstimulus interval. One group did not receive RP (nonblocked) and was instead immediately returned to its home cage (Condition A-NBHC). The third group was treated as was A-B except the CS was not presented (Condition A-NBSB). Two other groups were trained in a classical defensive paradigm. These animals were matched to A-B animals in terms of number, order, and duration of CSs and USs. Following conditioning, one group received the same treatment as A-B (Condition CD-B), and the other received the same treatment as A-NBHC (Condition CD-NBHC). Two groups served as controls. A backward control (Condition BC-NBHC) was matched to A-NBHC in terms of number, order, and duration of CSs and USs. A sensitization control (Condition SC-NBHC) was matched to A-NBHC in terms of number, order, and duration of CS presentations. Immediately following conditioning trials, control animals received the same treatment as A-NBHC animals. After differential treatments all animals were immediately returned to the lever box in which they had learned to bar press, a VI 2 schedule was reinstated, and the CER was measured. A-B showed significant suppression initially but significantly less than A-NBHC, suggesting that although RP was effective in reducing fear to the CS, some fear remained. Controls showed essentially no suppression and did not differ. A-B did not differ from A-NBSB, suggesting that conditioning of fear did occur to the environment and that this fear was subsequently reduced in A-NBSB. A-B suppressed significantly more than CD-B, suggesting that RP was more effective when fear was learned in a classical as compared to an avoidance paradigm. Theoretical implications and generalizations to implosive therapy are discussed.
J Exp Psychol Gen 1976 Jun
PMID:Residual fear of the conditioned stimulus as a function of response prevention after avoidance or classical defensive conditioning in the rat. 100 17

The underlying principles of the kinetics and equilibrium of a solitary sodium channel in the steady state are examined. Both the open and closed kinetics are postulated to result from round-trip excursions from a transition region that separates the openable and closed forms. Exponential behavior of the kinetics can have origins different from small-molecule systems. These differences suggest that the probability density functions (PDFs) that describe the time dependences of the open and closed forms arise from a distribution of rate constants. The distribution is likely to arise from a thermal modulation of the channel structure, and this provides a physical basis for the following three-variable equation: [formula; see text] Here, A0 is a scaling term, k is the mean rate constant, and sigma quantifies the Gaussian spread for the contributions of a range of effective rate constants. The maximum contribution is made by k, with rates faster and slower contributing less. (When sigma, the standard deviation of the spread, goes to zero, then p(f) = A0 e-kt.) The equation is applied to the single-channel steady-state probability density functions for batrachotoxin-treated sodium channels (1986. Keller et al. J. Gen. Physiol. 88: 1-23). The following characteristics are found: (a) The data for both open and closed forms of the channel are fit well with the above equation, which represents a Gaussian distribution of first-order rate processes. (b) The simple relationship [formula; see text] holds for the mean effective rat constants. Or, equivalently stated, the values of P open calculated from the k values closely agree with the P open values found directly from the PDF data. (c) In agreement with the known behavior of voltage-dependent rate constants, the voltage dependences of the mean effective rate constants for the opening and closing of the channel are equal and opposite over the voltage range studied. That is, [formula; see text] "Bursts" are related to the well-known cage effect of solution chemistry.
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PMID:Steady-state kinetics of solitary batrachotoxin-treated sodium channels. Kinetics on a bounded continuum of polymer conformations. 131 65

Stress-induced hyperthermia (SIH), which is seen in the last mice removed from the cage, is a novel animal model sensitive to anxiolytic drugs. SIH is antagonized by CL 218872 (25 and 50 mg/kg, os), by tracazolate (5 and 7.5 mg/kg, ip) and by 2-AP-5 (50 and 100 mg/kg, ip). At higher dose, CL 218872 (100 mg/kg, os) and tracazolate (12.5 mg/kg, ip) lose their activity. PK 9084 (5-40 mg/kg, ip) and CGS 9896 (2-20 mg/kg, both ip and os) were also ineffective in preventing SIH. The anti-hyperthermic effect of CL 218872 (25 mg/kg) and tracazolate (7.5 mg/kg) was blocked by the benzodiazepine antagonist Ro 15-1788 (15 mg/kg), CGS 9896 (10 mg/kg, os) also reversed the effect of CL 218872 (25 mg/kg) on SIH. Differently from anxiolytics, MK-801 (0.5-1 mg/kg, os), PCP (2.5 mg/kg, ip) and d-amphetamine (10 mg/kg, ip) evoked hyperthermia in the first set of mice and prevented a further stress-induced rise of body temperature in the last set of mice.
J Neural Transm Gen Sect 1991
PMID:Effect of psychotomimetics and some putative anxiolytics on stress-induced hyperthermia. 167 45

The purpose of this study was to document circulating concentrations of corticosterone in the plasma in relation to the ovarian follicular cycle in animals in the field and to examine the effects of captivity and laboratory manipulations on plasma corticosterone in the parthenogenetic whiptail lizard Cnemidophorus uniparens. In nature, circulating concentrations of corticosterone are highest in previtellogenic individuals when concentrations of progesterone are basal and estradiol-17 beta is undetectable. In vitellogenic lizards, circulating concentrations of corticosterone decline from previtellogenic levels while concentrations of progesterone and estradiol-17 beta increase. In preovulatory individuals, corticosterone concentrations are basal, while progesterone and estradiol-17 beta levels are maximal. Following ovulation, corticosterone and progesterone remain at preovulatory concentrations and estradiol-17 beta is undetectable. Ovariectomy elevates circulating concentrations of corticosterone, as does cold and handling. Individuals housed either in isolation or in groups of three per cage exhibit circulating concentrations of corticosterone similar to those measured in the plasma of animals immediately after being captured in the field. The effects of ovariectomy and cold/handling manipulations were additive. No nonadditive effect (statistical interaction) was revealed. These results document complementary and reciprocal effects of ovarian and adrenal gland function with respect to hormonal changes both in the field and as a result of experimental manipulations in the laboratory. However, relationships between ovarian and adrenal function appear to be complex. Several overlapping hypotheses are offered as possible explanations of the results and as potential avenues for further investigations.
Gen Comp Endocrinol 1989 Dec
PMID:Ovarian and adrenal function in the parthenogenetic whiptail lizard Cnemidophorus uniparens in the field and laboratory. 258 74

Mouse thymic virus (MTV) is a naturally occurring herpesvirus of mice which produces persistent infection in salivary glands. No transmission study has been reported previously. In the present work, transmissibility of MTV has been studied by close contact between cage-mates, by the transplacental route from experimentally infected pregnant mice to their foetuses at term or delivered by Caesarean section and by nursing mothers to their sucklings. Transmission of MTV was detected between cage-mates after a long period of contact. The virus was also recovered from newborns nursed by infected mothers inoculated 1 day post-delivery. However, no transmission was detected in the foetuses following infection of mothers at different stages of pregnancy.
J Gen Virol 1987 Apr
PMID:Transmission of mouse thymic virus. 303 33

Alcoholism, more than any other illness, requires the integration of social and family history, physical symptoms and signs, and laboratory data in order to make a firm diagnosis. Common in alcoholism is the patient's minimization or denial of the disease and its symptoms, thwarting efforts at early diagnosis and intervention. If early diagnosis is to be made, several points should be remembered: 1. Life problems associated with alcohol use are the earliest signs of the disease. 2. There are few reliable early physical symptoms and signs. 3. Laboratory markers of alcoholism are neither sensitive nor specific when used alone as screening tools. 4. Alcoholism questionnaires, e.g., the MAST or the CAGE, should be a part of routine office practice in screening for alcoholism. Effective therapy is available, but early diagnosis is necessary for the best outcome. Gallant has reminded us of the "tragedy of delayed treatment." Early recognition of alcoholism puts the internist, as well as other primary care providers, in the best position to begin the process of healing the patients and their families.
J Gen Intern Med
PMID:Alcoholism: early diagnosis and intervention. 332 Feb 97

Patients from 47 group practices recruited from the Medical Research Council's general practice research framework participated in a study involving the collection of information about smoking, drinking, exercise and dieting and weight. This paper is concerned with the data on alcohol consumption obtained in the first stage of the study in which a self-administered questionnaire, the health survey questionnaire, was distributed by hand or by post to patients registered with the participating practices.Of the 25496 men who completed the questionnaire, 83.6% stated that they had been drinking in the previous three months compared with 69.2% of the 36657 women. For both sexes, abstinence rates were significantly lower in the younger age groups (P<O.001). Of the men, 7.6% admitted to a weekly alcohol consumption of 35 units or more and 2.7% women were drinking 21 units per week or more.Of the 1948 male excessive drinkers 45.9% expressed concern about their drinking through a positive CAGE response and/or self assessment of a drinking problem, while for the 989 female excessive drinkers the figure was 44.1%. A positive response to these questions was strongly related to alcohol consumption and was more frequent among women than men at most levels of consumption.
J R Coll Gen Pract 1987 Aug
PMID:Drinking patterns in general practice patients. 344 27

A study was undertaken in a north London general practice to see which questions and investigations were useful in assessing the drinking patterns of patients. In a 10-month period in 1984, 855 patients were interviewed by means of a questionnaire about quantity and frequency of drinking and the CAGE questionnaire to determine their drinking habits. They were also asked to blow into an alcolmeter. A blood sample was taken from 119 patients who said they drank more than 20 units of alcohol weekly or who scored more than two on the CAGE questionnaire or who had a positive alcolmeter reading, and gamma glutamyl transpeptidase levels and mean corpuscular volume were determined.The study showed that questions about quantity and frequency of drinking, taking under two minutes to administer in the consultation, are sufficient to raise suspicions about drinking problems. Detailed investigation can then be undertaken in patients who say they drink more than 20 units of alcohol weekly.
J R Coll Gen Pract 1986 Sep
PMID:Assessment of drinking patterns in general practice. 380 86


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