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The objective of this publication is to report on the feasibility of using a tether system for obtaining data on blood pressure and heart rates of socially housed primates and to evaluate the extent to which housing environment alters cardiovascular responses (mean arterial blood pressure and heart rate). Blood pressure and heart rates of adult male baboons (Papio cynocephalus hamadryas) were evaluated over a 6 week period under three different housing conditions: social companion, individual, and socially unfamiliar. Social environment was manipulated in a specially designed cage that incorporated removable panels of either woven wire or solid sheet metal. The design of the cage permitted nonhuman primates to engage in species-typical social behaviors such as grooming and aggression. Using a tether and catheter system, we monitored cardiovascular physiology. We tested the hypothesis that individual housing, housing with social companions, and housing with social strangers would produce different mean arterial blood pressure and heart rate responses. Individual housing and housing with strangers produced resting mean arterial blood pressures that were elevated relative to blood pressure responses with social companions. Individual housing and housing with social strangers produced different patterns of cardiovascular response. Individual housing resulted in lowered heart rates and elevated blood pressures relative to the social companion condition. Housing with social strangers resulted in both elevated blood pressure and elevated heart rate, relative to the social companion condition. Responses observed during this study demonstrated the sensitivity of blood pressure and heart rates to differences in social environment.
Am J Primatol 1991
PMID:Assessing the effects of social environment on blood pressure and heart rates of baboons. 3195 1

A new environmental enrichment device, termed a "foraging/grooming board," was presented to 8 individually housed rhesus monkeys for the explicit purpose of reducing the level of aberrant behaviors manifested by these animals. The device, consisting of a piece of plexiglass covered with artificial fleece, had particles of food treats rubbed into it and was attached to the outside of each animal's home cage. All animals foraged from the board to the point that a significant reduction in the level of abnormal behavior was noted. Most animals also groomed the fleece covering the board, utilizing the same motor patterns that would be directed toward grooming another monkey. These boards are inexpensive to construct and easy to sanitize, and do not require placing animal facility personnel at risk to maintain them.
Am J Primatol 1991
PMID:The reduction of abnormal behaviors in individually housed rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) with a foraging/grooming board. 3195 13

The behavior of peer-reared infant rhesus macaques raised in enriched and nonenriched housing conditions was examined in order to evaluate the utility and effectiveness of object enrichment in a group housing setting. Environmental enrichment consisted of apparatuses designed to promote motor activity and to provide response-contingent feedback. Four animals in each condition were tested over a 14-month period. Behavioral observations were conducted in the home cage and during several test situations specifically designed to assess behavioral and affective responses to novelty and mild stressors. Monkeys in the enriched condition exhibited fewer behavioral and affective signs of disturbance than control infants in all observation conditions.
Am J Primatol 1990
PMID:Inanimate environmental enrichment for group-housed rhesus macaque infants. 3196 66

The present investigation assesses the percentage of time that rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) are kept occupied by a more complex cage environment. Sixty animals were continuously exposed for at least 1.5 years to a compatible companion for social interaction, a suspended plastic pipe for perching, and a branch segment for gnawing. The behavior of the partners of each pair was recorded for 60 minutes when the animals were not distracted by human activities. Individuals spent an average of 23.5% of the time interacting with the companion, but only 10.4% with the plastic pipe and 4.8% with the branch segment. Differences were statistically significant. Females were socially more active than males. Subadult animals (3.5-4 years) used both inanimate objects significantly more than did adult animals (9-30 years). It was concluded that (1) a compatible companion, a suspended plastic pipe, and a loose branch segment remain effective stimuli for caged rhesus monkeys after more than 1 year of exposure and (2) a compatible companion is of greater stimulatory value-particularly for adults-than are inanimate objects.
Am J Primatol 1990
PMID:Time budget of caged rhesus monkeys exposed to a companion, a PVC perch, and a piece of wood for an extended time. 3196 99

An attempt was made to pair ten unrelated, adult male rhesus monkeys that had been kept in single cages for several years. Potential companions were first given the opportunity to establish clear-cut rank relationships (unidirectional fear-grinning and/or withdrawing) during a 5-day period of noncontact familiarization. Only then were they paired in a different double cage. Rank relationships were confirmed within the first 6 minutes after pairing without the occurrence of any biting and fighting. A total of four physical aggressions (slapping) were observed in all five dyads during 5 hours of observations on the first 5 days after pairing. It was concluded that the establishment of clear-cut rank relationships prior to pairing was instrumental in this extremely low incidence of aggression.
Am J Primatol 1989
PMID:Behavioral responses of unrelated adult male rhesus monkeys familiarized and paired for the purpose of environmental enrichment. 3196 55

In search of a method to increase the validity of experimental data and simultaneously counteract the negative consequences of restricted laboratory environments, a pilot study was run with three rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta), which were trained and tested with a laboratory-type task in the animal housing facility. The testing apparatus was made available to individual animals 24 hours a day at their living cage and was connected to a computer that controlled the test and the distribution of regular monkey chow as reward. The animals were thus able to work whenever they wanted, for whatever period of time they chose, in their accustomed home environment. Besides furnishing data on the distribution of activity and performance over extended periods of time, the study provided more data than those obtained previously when animals were tested each day for only a limited time in an isolated test chamber. It was also found that the self-initiated manipulatory activity required by the test considerably reduced the number of motor stereotypies. Thus, testing animals within the housing facility was profitable for the investigators and beneficial for the animals.
Am J Primatol 1988
PMID:Combining scientific experimentation with conventional housing: A pilot study with rhesus monkeys. 3197 39

An attempt was made to socialize unrelated and unfamiliar adult rhesus monkey females that had lived in single cages for more than one year. Partners first were given the opportunity for noncontact familiarization in partitioned double cages. They were then transferred into an ordinary double cage. Clear-cut rank relationships were evident within the first 90 minutes of pair formation in 94% (17/18) of dyads tested. Only 28% (5/18) of pairs resorted to fighting (in no case with infliction of serious injury), while 50% (9/18) engaged in social grooming or hugging during this initial phase of pair formation. Eighty-three percent (15/18) of pairs were compatible, with none of the partners showing signs of depression and none inflicting serious injury on the other. Seventeen percent (3/18) of pairs were incompatible (two cases of depression, one serious tail injury) and were separated. It was concluded that the barren environment of singly caged rhesus monkey females can be enriched with little risk by carefully making them compatible companions.
Am J Primatol 1988
PMID:Behavioral responses of unrelated rhesus monkey females paired for the purpose of environmental enrichment. 3197 49

A group of juvenile rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) living in a nuclear-family laboratory environment was studied to determine their responses to the births of siblings. The frequencies of interactions with family members (mothers, fathers, and new siblings) and nonfamily (peers, unrelated infants, and unrelated adults) were studied over both the year preceding and the year following sibling birth. The frequencies of specific behaviors in each of those interactions and the frequencies of interactions in each area of the nuclear-family unit (home cage, play area, or other families' cage) were also examined. After new siblings arrived, several measures of interactions with mothers, fathers, and new siblings increased significantly; by contrast interactions with peers decreased substantially over the post-birth year. Although the frequency of interactions in home cages remained stable over the 2-year period, interactions outside of the subjects' home cages decreased significantly after siblings were born. An additional subject group whose mothers became pregnant but failed to deliver viable offspring showed no significant changes in total levels of interactions with peers; they did, however, exhibit increases in some interactions with unrelated infants and adults. Female juveniles interacted with new siblings significantly more often than did males when siblings were less than 6 months old, but as siblings grew older (6-12 months), females' levels of interaction with them fell to a level equal to that of males. In the nuclear-family social structure, the birth of a sibling resulted in an increased emphasis on family interactions at the expense of peer interactions.
Am J Primatol 1987
PMID:Reactions of nuclear-family-reared rhesus macaques to the births of younger siblings. 3197 63

Over a 4 month period, systematic and ad libitum observations were conducted on two adult female black-and-white ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata variegata) and their infants in a 3.5 ha forest enclosure. The females were mother and daughter, members of a family group that had been semifree-ranging for 2 years and 3 months at the time of the births. One to two weeks before parturition, the females independently constructed nests, in which they kept their infants during the first few weeks following parturition. The older mother, cage-reared herself, prepared at least one nest. Her daughter, who has lived in the forest since late juvenescence, prepared at least four. Two to three weeks after parturition, the mothers moved their infants high into trees. During periods of maternal absence, the infants were often alone, and they rarely or never moved, vocalized, or groomed themselves. The mothers often kept their infants together after nests were no longer used. Each infant nursed freely from both lactating females. The infants were carried orally only by their mothers and were never transported by clinging to the pelage of any group members. Previously, researchers suggested that ruffed lemurs build nests for care of infants high up in trees. The present observations, however, suggest that two major modes of neonate care in Varecia exist: serial use of multiple ground nests and "parking" of infants high in trees. Advance preparation of several nest sites, relative lack of large predators, alternate maternal and paternal guarding of infants, infant immobility during absence of mother, and rapid infant development make this tactic of care for neonates plausible.
Am J Primatol 1987
PMID:Tactics of care for young infants by forest-living ruffed lemurs (Varecia variegata variegata): Ground nests, parking, and biparental guarding. 3197 74

The purpose of this study was to investigate the manipulative propensities of a captive group of lion-tailed macaques (Macaca silenus). Simple natural objects (browse and bamboo poles) were provided regularly in the home cage. Findings indicate richness in the frequency and form of manipulative activities, with juvenile males manipulating the test objects more frequently and exhibiting more goal-directed manipulative activity than adult females. A variety of goal-directed manipulative activities (use of objects to act as ladders, to apply leverage, and to create perches) occurred spontaneously, with some instances involving joint action or social use. These data are consistent with the hypotheses that macaques possess extensive capacities for object exploration and social facilitation, and that an evolutionary history of omnivorous foraging habits correlates positively with the expression of anomalous sensorimotor skills.
Am J Primatol 1987
PMID:Manipulation of objects in a captive group of lion-tailed macaques (Macaca silenus). 3197 1


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