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The question of whether language affects thought is long-standing, with grammatical gender being one of the most contended instances. Empirical evidence focuses on the gender congruency effect, according to which referents of masculine nouns are conceptualized more strongly as male and those of feminine nouns more strongly as female. While some recent studies suggest that this effect is driven by conceptual connotations rather than grammatical properties, research remains theoretically inconclusive because of the confounding of grammatical gender and conceptual connotations in gendered (masculine or feminine) nouns. Taking advantage of the fact that German also includes a neuter gender, the current study attempted to disentangle the relative contributions of grammatical properties and connotations to the emergence of the gender congruency effect. In three pairs of experiments, neuter and gendered nouns were compared in an Extrinsic Affective Simon Task based on gender associations, controlled for a possible role of gender-indicating articles. A congruency effect emerged equally strongly for neuter and gendered nouns, but disappeared when including connotations as covariate, thereby effectively excluding grammatical gender as the (only) driving force for this effect. Based on a critical discussion of these findings, we propose a possible mechanism for the emergence of the effect that also has the potential to accommodate conflicting patterns of findings from previous research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).
J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2018 Oct
PMID:Gender congruency from a neutral point of view: The roles of gender classes and conceptual connotations. 2938 94

There is a wealth of evidence that people's reasoning is influenced by explanatory considerations. Little is known, however, about the exact form this influence takes, for instance about whether the influence is unsystematic or because of people's following some rule. Three experiments investigate the descriptive adequacy of a precise proposal to be found in the philosophical literature, to wit, that we should infer to the best explanation, provided certain additional conditions are met. The first experiment studies the relation between the quality of an explanation and people's willingness to infer that explanation when only one candidate explanation is given. The second experiment presents participants always with two explanations and investigates the effect of the presence of an alternative on the participants' willingness to infer the target explanation. Although Experiments 1 and 2 manipulate explanation quality and willingness to infer to the best explanation between participants, Experiment 3 manipulates those measures within participants, thereby allowing to study the influence of explanatory considerations on inference at the individual level. The third experiment also studies the connection between explanation quality, willingness to infer, and metacognitive confidence in the decision to infer. The main conclusions that can be drawn from these experiments are that (a) the quality of an explanation is a good predictor of people's willingness to accept that explanation, and a better predictor than the prior probability of the explanation, and (b) if more than one possible explanation is given, people are the less willing to infer the best explanation the better they deem the second-best explanation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).
J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2018 Nov
PMID:Best, second-best, and good-enough explanations: How they matter to reasoning. 2938 97

Across two visual world paradigm (VWP) experiments, Salverda and Tanenhaus (2010) observed an effect of orthographic overlap between targets and competitors in the absence of an effect of phonological overlap when mapping spoken targets onto briefly previewed printed arrays. They concluded that the use of orthographic knowledge can precede use of phonological knowledge during language-mediated mapping in the printed word variant of the VWP. The present experiments aimed to follow up on these studies to examine whether and when phonological and orthographic representations are used during language-mediated mapping. In Experiments 1 and 3, competitors shared high or low phonological overlap with the target but the same degree of orthographic overlap, and in Experiments 2 and 4, orthographic overlap differed between the competitors whereas phonological overlap was held constant. Overlap was manipulated between displays in Experiments 1 and 2 and within display in Experiments 3 and 4. In contrast with Salverda and Tanenhaus' (2010) findings, preferential viewing of the high over the low phonological overlap competitor was observed in Experiment 3, whereas effects of orthographic overlap were unreliable and temporally nondistinct in Experiments 2 and 4. These findings suggest that the use of phonological representations precedes the use of orthographic representations during mapping of spoken targets onto printed arrays in the VWP. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).
J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2018 Oct
PMID:The use of phonological representations in guiding eye movements in the visual world paradigm. 2938 98

The role of awareness in evaluative learning has been thoroughly investigated with a variety of theoretical and methodological approaches. We investigated evaluative conditioning (EC) without awareness with an approach that conceptually provides optimal conditions for unaware learning - the Continuous Flash Suppression paradigm (CFS). In CFS, a stimulus presented to one eye can be rendered invisible for a prolonged duration by presenting a high-contrast dynamic pattern to the other eye. The suppressed stimulus is nevertheless processed. First, Experiment 1 established EC effects in a pseudo-CFS setup without suppression. Experiment 2 then employed CFS to suppress conditioned stimuli (CSs) from awareness while the unconditioned stimuli (USs) were visible. While Experiment 1 and 2 used a between-participants manipulation of CS suppression, Experiments 3 and 4 both manipulated suppression within participants. We observed EC effects when CSs were not suppressed, but found no EC effects when the CS was suppressed from awareness. We relate our finding to previous research and discuss theoretical implications for EC. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).
J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2018 Oct
PMID:Does evaluative conditioning depend on awareness? Evidence from a continuous flash suppression paradigm. 2948 Nov 3

People frequently receive performance feedback that describes how well they achieved in the past, and how they could improve in future. In educational contexts, future-oriented (directive) feedback is often argued to be more valuable to learners than past-oriented (evaluative) feedback; critically, prior research led us to predict that it should also be better remembered. We tested this prediction in six experiments. Subjects read written feedback containing evaluative and directive comments, which supposedly related to essays they had previously written (Experiments 1-2), or to essays another person had written (Experiments 3-6). Subjects then tried to reproduce the feedback from memory after a short delay. In all six experiments, the data strongly revealed the opposite effect to the one we predicted: despite only small differences in wording, evaluative feedback was in fact recalled consistently better than directive feedback. Furthermore, even when adult subjects did recall directive feedback, they frequently misremembered it in an evaluative style. These findings appear at odds with the position that being oriented toward the future is advantageous to memory. They also raise important questions about the possible behavioral effects and generalizability of such biases, in terms of students' academic performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).
J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2018 Dec
PMID:A memory advantage for past-oriented over future-oriented performance feedback. 2950 85

Two experiments tested whether a peak-shifted generalization gradient could be explained by the averaging of distinct gradients displayed in subgroups reporting different generalization rules. Across experiments using a causal judgment task (Experiment 1) and a fear conditioning paradigm (Experiment 2), we found a close concordance between self-reported rules and generalization gradients using a continuous stimulus dimension (hue). Both experiments also showed an overall peak-shifted gradient after differential conditioning, but not after single cue conditioning. Importantly, the peak shift could be decomposed into linear and peaked gradients when participants were divided into rule subgroups. Our results highlight the need to consider individual differences in the rules that participants derive in human generalization studies and suggest that in some situations, peak shift may be a consequence of averaging across diverse rule subgroups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).
J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2018 Dec
PMID:Peak shift and rules in human generalization. 2955 69

Current evidence suggests that native speakers and, to a lesser degree, second language learners are sensitive to the frequency with which phrases occur in language. Much of this evidence, however, comes from language comprehension. While a number of production studies have looked at phrase frequency effects in a first language, little evidence exists with respect to the production of phrases in a second language. The present study addressed this gap by examining the production of English binomial expressions by first and late second language speakers. In a phrase elicitation task, participants produced binomial expressions (bride and groom) and their reversed forms (groom and bride), which are identical in form and meaning but differ in frequency. Mixed-effects modeling revealed that native speakers' articulatory durations were modulated by phrase frequency, but not the type of stimulus (binomial vs. reversed). Nonnative speakers' articulatory durations were not affected either by phrase frequency or stimulus type. Our findings provide further evidence for the effect of multiword information on language production in native speakers, and raise important questions about the effects of phrase frequency on language production in second language learners. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).
J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2018 Dec
PMID:Production of familiar phrases: Frequency effects in native speakers and second language learners. 2964 65

A word's predictability, as measured by its cloze probability, has a robust influence on the time a reader's eyes spend on the word, with more predictable words receiving shorter fixations. However, several previous studies using the boundary paradigm have found no apparent effect of predictability on early reading time measures when the reader does not have valid parafoveal preview of the target word. The present study directly assesses this pattern in two experiments, demonstrating evidence for a null effect of predictability on first fixation and gaze duration with invalid preview, supported by Bayes factor analyses. While the effect of context independent word frequency is shown to survive with invalid preview, consistent with previous studies, the effect of predictability is eliminated with both unrelated word previews and random letter string previews. These results suggest that a word's predictability influences early stages of orthographic processing, and does so only when perceptual evidence is equivocal, as is the case when the word is initially viewed in parafoveal vision. Word frequency may influence not only early orthographic processing, but also later processing stages. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).
J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2019 Jan
PMID:The role of preview validity in predictability and frequency effects on eye movements in reading. 2964 70

The word length effect, better recall of lists of short (fewer syllables) than long (more syllables) words has been termed a benchmark effect of working memory. Despite this, experiments on the word length effect can yield quite different results depending on set size and stimulus properties. Seven experiments are reported that address these 2 issues. Experiment 1 replicated the finding of a preserved word length effect under concurrent articulation for large stimulus sets, which contrasts with the abolition of the word length effect by concurrent articulation for small stimulus sets. Experiment 2, however, demonstrated that when the short and long words are equated on more dimensions, concurrent articulation abolishes the word length effect for large stimulus sets. Experiment 3 shows a standard word length effect when output time is equated, but Experiments 4-6 show no word length effect when short and long words are equated on increasingly more dimensions that previous demonstrations have overlooked. Finally, Experiment 7 compared recall of a small and large neighborhood words that were equated on all the dimensions used in Experiment 6 (except for those directly related to neighborhood size) and a neighborhood size effect was still observed. We conclude that lexical factors, rather than word length per se, are better predictors of when the word length effect will occur. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).
J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2018 Nov
PMID:Word length, set size, and lexical factors: Re-examining what causes the word length effect. 2967 12

Interventions for drug abuse and other maladaptive habitual behaviors may yield temporary success but are often fragile and relapse is common. This implies that current interventions do not erase or substantially modify the representations that support the underlying addictive behavior-that is, they do not cause true unlearning. One example of an intervention that fails to induce true unlearning comes from Crossley, Ashby, and Maddox (2013, Journal of Experimental Psychology: General), who reported that a sudden shift to random feedback did not cause unlearning of category knowledge obtained through procedural systems, and they also reported results suggesting that this failure is because random feedback is noncontingent on behavior. These results imply the existence of a mechanism that (a) estimates feedback contingency and (b) protects procedural learning from modification when feedback contingency is low (i.e., during random feedback). This article reports the results of an experiment in which increasing cognitive load via an explicit dual task during the random feedback period facilitated unlearning. This result is consistent with the hypothesis that the mechanism that protects procedural learning when feedback contingency is low depends on executive function. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).
J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 2018 Nov
PMID:Increased cognitive load enables unlearning in procedural category learning. 2967 13


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