Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound
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Query: UNIPROT:P61278 (somatostatin)
 22,083 document(s) hit in 31,850,051 MEDLINE articles (0.00 seconds)

Tyrosine hydroxylase-like immunoreactive (TH-IR) neurons were observed from the embryonic day 17 (E17) to 6 weeks postnatally in two closely related nuclei of the limbic system, the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) and the central nucleus of the amygdala (CNA) where they were restricted to circumscribed zones. These cells were scarce with an immature morphological aspect at E17. They progressively differentiated and increased in number until postnatal day 5 (P5), when their maximal density was reached. They were characterized as neurons by their ultrastructural appearance and the presence of both axo-somatic and axo-dendritic synaptic junctions. Moreover, TH-IR axons could be followed in the stria terminalis leaving the CNA, suggesting that part of TH-IR cells could be long projecting neurons rather than interneurons. A gradual decrease in the intensity of TH-IR and in density of labeled neurons was noted from P15 on, in both nuclei, (-50% at 4 weeks) until their total disappearance at 7 weeks. The significance of this TH-IR labeling regarding the catecholaminergic transmission remains unclear since these neurons did not contain the other catecholaminergic synthetic enzymes (DOPA-decarboxylase, dopamine-beta-hydroxylase, phenylethanolamine-N-methyl transferase) nor endogenous catecholamines. Double-labeling immunocytochemical methods, indicated that almost all the TH-IR neurons were colocalized with somatostatin 28 (SST) and with substance P (SP). Therefore these neurons expressed simultaneously 3 phenotypes, TH, SST and SP. This observation brings forth the notion of multiple neurotransmitter expression in transient neuronal populations and raises the question of neurotransmitter plasticity in the late postnatal development of the central nervous system (CNS). These neurons which were observed in two closely interconnected structures could be involved in early limbic circuits.
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PMID:Transient tyrosine hydroxylase-like immunoreactive neurons contain somatostatin and substance P in the developing amygdala and bed nucleus of the stria terminalis of the rat. 245 12

We have examined corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH), arginine vasopressin (AVP) and somatostatin (SOM) mRNA expression and peptide content in the rat hypothalamus from day 20 of fetal life (F20) to the fifteenth day of postnatal life (P15). During this time, hypothalamic CRH mRNA levels did not change significantly, whereas there was a gradual six-fold rise in CRH peptide levels. AVP mRNA levels fell three-fold between F20 and P1 and increased six-fold between P1 and P15. AVP peptide levels increased three-fold, with most of the rise occurring between P1 and P15. From F20 to P15, SOM mRNA and peptide levels rose four- and eight-fold, respectively. The changes in the levels of these three hypothalamic gene products correlate with the previously described alterations in the responsiveness of the HPA axis observed in fetal and early postnatal rats, suggesting a role for these neuropeptides in the modulation of the HPA axis during this developmental period.
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PMID:Developmental expression of corticotropin releasing hormone messenger RNA and peptide in rat hypothalamus. 257 25

The chemical differentiation of somatostatin (SS) neurons in rat neocortex was characterized by molecular biochemical and morphological methods. Northern (RNA) blotting indicates that regional distribution of SS mRNA correlates with the known distribution patterns of SS-containing neurons in the adult, while similar analysis of poly (A)+ RNA isolated from telencephalon at various times postnatally shows an increase between P9 and P15, with a slight decrease in the adult. In situ hybridization with a probe specific to SS mRNA, and immunohistochemistry using antisera specific for the N-terminally extended form of SS, SS28, and SS28(1-12), were used to detect neocortical neurons containing this mRNA or its translation product. The appearance of SS mRNA is coincident with detectable immunoreactivity for SS peptides. The expression of the SS gene by cortical neurons occurs in two waves. From P1 to P11, hybridizing neurons are predominant below the cortical plate in the developing infragranular layers. Immunohistochemical analysis of immunoreactivity to SS28 reveals a significant development of this neocortical system by late gestation (E20). At this point SS28(1-12), the predominant SS form detected, is mainly in neurons of the subplate, with less detectable immunoreactivity in the intermediate zone and cortical plate. By P2, neurons in the subplate exhibit detectable SS28 and SS28(1-12). Although immunoreactive perikarya are no longer detectable at P2 in the cortical plate or marginal zone, a very dense plexus of SS28(1-12) fibers is seen in the subplate, marginal zone, and intermediate zone; relatively few immunoreactive fibers are found in the cortical plate. By P12, a dramatic shift occurs; a large supragranular population of these SS neurons is observed by both mRNA and antibody methods, as is a subsequent decrease in number in the adult. The shift in immunoreactivity occurs with supragranular SS28-containing neurons now prominent, and SS28(1-12)-containing neurons and fibers greatly diminished. The number of neurons containing SS mRNA or SS28 immunoreactivity decreases from P12 to adult, when these neurons exhibit a bilaminar distribution. Neurons immunoreactive for SS28(1-12) are now sparsely distributed throughout the cortex, while SS28(1-12) fibers densely innervate layers I and V/VI.
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PMID:Immunohistochemical and in situ hybridization analysis of the development of the rat somatostatin-containing neocortical neuronal system. 289 81

Using a combination of in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry, the development of somatostatin (SS)-containing neurons and fibers was examined in the rat dorsal hippocampus and dentate gyrus. The major development of this hippocampal peptidergic system occurs postnatally. At postnatal day 1 (P1), neurons containing SS mRNA are evident primarily in the stratum oriens, but also in the hilus of the dentate gyrus. Similar neurons are also immunoreactive for SS28 and SS28(1-12), suggesting a minimal lag in the transcription of SS mRNA and its translation into specific SS peptides. The number of SS neurons increases postnatally to P10, followed by a decrease in number in the adult. This transient change in the number of SS neurons coincides with dramatic changes in SS28(1-12)-immunoreactive fibers, which are initially present in the stratum lacunosum moleculare, with no significant immunoreactivity in the dentate gyrus. By P15, the molecular layer of the dentate gyrus is densely innervated, while similar immunoreactivity in the stratum lacunosum moleculare is greatly reduced. These data are consistent with a transient projection from the stratum oriens to the stratum lacunosum moleculare, which is replaced by a projection from the hilus to the molecular layer of the dentate gyrus as this structure matures.
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PMID:Development of somatostatin-containing neurons and fibers in the rat hippocampus. 289 70

GABAergic interneurons are key elements regulating the activity of local circuits, and abnormal inhibitory circuits are implicated in certain psychiatric and neurodevelopmental diseases. The glutamatergic input that interneurons receive is a key determinant of their activity, yet its molecular structure and development, which are often distinct from those of glutamatergic input to pyramidal cells, are poorly defined. The membrane-associated guanylate kinase (MAGUK) homologs PSD-95/SAP90, PSD-93/chapsyn110, SAP97, and SAP102 are central organizers of the postsynaptic density at excitatory synapses on pyramidal neurons. We therefore studied the cell-type-specific and developmental expression of MAGUKs in the nonoverlapping parvalbumin (PV)- and somatostatin (SOM)-positive interneurons in the visual cortex. These interneuron subtypes account for the vast majority of interneurons in the cortex and have different functional properties and postsynaptic structures, being either axodendritic (PV(+)) or axospinous (SOM(+)). To study cell-type-specific MAGUK expression, we used DIG-labeled riboprobes against each MAGUK along with antibodies against either PV or SOM and examined tissue from juvenile (P15) and adult mice. Both PV(+) and SOM(+) interneurons express mRNA for PSD-95, PSD-93, and SAP102 in P15 and adult tissue. In contrast, these interneuron subtypes express SAP97 at P15, but for adult visual cortex we found that most PV(+) and SOM(+) interneurons show low or no expression of SAP97. Given the importance of SAP97 in regulating AMPA receptor GluA1 subunit and NMDA receptor subunits at glutamatergic synapses, these results suggest a developmental shift in glutamate receptor subunit composition and regulation of glutamatergic synapses on PV(+) and SOM(+) interneurons.
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PMID:Expression pattern of membrane-associated guanylate kinases in interneurons of the visual cortex. 2103 55

Infants born premature experience hypoxic episodes due to immaturity of their respiratory and central nervous systems. This profoundly affects brain development and results in cognitive impairments. We used a mouse model to examine the impact of hypoxic rearing (9.5-10.5% O2) from postnatal day 3 to 11 (P3-P11) on GABAergic interneurons and the potential for environmental enrichment to ameliorate these developmental abnormalities. At P15 the numbers of cortical interneurons expressing immunohistochemically detectable levels of parvalbumin (PV), somatostatin (SST), and vasoactive intestinal peptide were decreased in hypoxic-reared mice by 59%, 32%, and 38%, respectively, compared with normoxic controls. Hypoxia also decreased total GABA content in frontal neocortex by 31%. However, GAD67-EGFP knock-in mice reared under hypoxic conditions showed no changes in total number of GAD67-EGFP(+) cells and no evidence of increased interneuron death, suggesting that the total number of interneurons was not decreased, but rather, that hypoxic-rearing decreased interneuron marker expression in these cells. In adulthood, PV and SST expression levels were decreased in hypoxic-reared mice. In contrast, intensity of reelin (RLN) expression was significantly increased in adult hypoxic-reared mice compared with normoxic controls. Housing mice in an enriched environment from P21 until adulthood normalized phenotypic interneuron marker expression without affecting total interneuron numbers or leading to increased neurogenesis. Our data show that (1) hypoxia decreases PV and SST and increases RLN expression in cortical interneurons during postnatal cortical development and (2) enriched environment has the capacity to normalize the interneuron abnormalities in cortex.
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PMID:Hypoxia-induced developmental delays of inhibitory interneurons are reversed by environmental enrichment in the postnatal mouse forebrain. 2394 95