Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound
Pivot Concepts:   Target Concepts:
Query: UNIPROT:P17174 (aspartate aminotransferase)
 14,872 document(s) hit in 31,850,051 MEDLINE articles (0.00 seconds)

Temporal variation in metabolism and hepatotoxicity of acetaminophen (APAP) was examined using male ICR mice. Animals were injected with a single dose of APAP (400 mg/kg, i.p.) at 08:00, 14:00 or 20:00 h. APAP at this dose was markedly hepatotoxic to mice when administered at 20:00 h as determined by increases in serum alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) activities, and by decreases in hepatic glucose-6-phosphatase (G-6-Pase) activity. However, mice appeared to be entirely insensitive to an identical dose of APAP given either at 08:00 or 14:00 h. Hepatic glutathione (GSH) level was significantly higher at 08:00, but no difference in GSH levels between 14:00 and 20:00 h was observed in normal mice. APAP and its metabolites in blood were monitored using HPLC for 3 h following the treatment. There were no significant differences in the plasma concentrations of APAP, APAP-glucuronide, APAP-sulfate, or APAP-mercapturate among the mice treated with this drug at 08:00, 14:00 or 20:00 h. However, the APAP-cysteine and APAP-GSH levels measured at 1 h following the APAP treatment were significantly lower in mice treated with this analgesic either at 14:00 or 20:00 h. In vitro hepatic microsomal p-nitrophenol hydroxylase activities were not different between 08:00, 14:00 and 20:00 h. But ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase and aminopyrine N-demethylase activities measured at 14:00 h were significantly lower than those of 08:00 or 20:00 h. Thus, the greater hepatotoxicity of APAP administered at 20:00 h appears to be related to the marked decrease in hepatic GSH at this time period, whereas the simultaneous reduction in APAP activation may be responsible for the lack of hepatotoxicity in mice treated with this analgesic at 14:00 h. These results suggest that the temporal variation in hepatotoxicity and metabolism of APAP is determined by interactions of multiple factors including the hepatic GSH level and drug metabolizing activities.
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PMID:Temporal variation in hepatotoxicity and metabolism of acetaminophen in mice. 970 5

L-2-oxothiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid (OTC) is a cysteine prodrug that maintains glutathione in tissues. Here, its effect on alcohol-induced liver injury in an enteral alcohol feeding model was investigated. Male Wistar rats were given control high-fat or ethanol containing diets enterally for 4 weeks. Treated rats received 500 mg/kg/d of dietary OTC. Ethanol delivery, weight gain, and the cyclic pattern of ethanol in the urine were not different between the OTC-ethanol and ethanol groups. After 4 weeks, serum aspartate transaminase (AST), necrosis and inflammation were elevated significantly by ethanol compared with appropriate high-fat controls, effects blocked by OTC. Moreover, ethanol elevated hepatic tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) messenger RNA (mRNA) and the nuclear transcription factor nuclear factor kappaB (NFkappaB) 2-3 fold. NFkappaB in isolated Kupffer cells was also increased by ethanol. These effects were all blocked by OTC treatment. Additionally, superoxide production was higher in Kupffer cells isolated from ethanol-treated rats, an effect blunted by OTC. OTC also increased circulating glutathione (GSH) levels about 2-fold; however, GSH levels were not affected by ethanol or OTC in livers from the groups studied. Surprisingly, GSH was elevated by ethanol and OTC treatment in isolated Kupffer cells about 2-fold. Moreover, GSH (Ki-10 micromol/L) and cysteinyl-glycine, but not oxidized glutathione (GSSG) or OTC, blunted the LPS-induced increase in calcium in isolated Kupffer cells, possibly by activating a glycine-gated chloride channel due to their structural similarity with glycine. Collectively, it is concluded that GSH is protective, in part, by increasing circulating GSH, which blunts activation of Kupffer cells via the glycine-gated chloride channel.
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PMID:The glutathione precursor L-2-oxothiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid protects against liver injury due to chronic enteral ethanol exposure in the rat. 1065 62

In previous kinetic studies of Escherichia coli aspartate aminotransferase, it was determined that some substitutions of conserved cysteine 191, which is located outside of the active site, altered the kinetic parameters of the enzyme (Gloss,L.M., Spencer,D. E. and Kirsch,J.F., 1996, Protein Struct. Funct. Genet., 24, 195-208). The mutations resulted in an alkaline shift of 0.6-0.8 pH units for the pK(a) of the internal aldimine between the PLP cofactor and Lys258. The change in the pK(a) affected the pH dependence of the k(cat)/K(m) (aspartate) values for the mutant enzymes. To help to understand these observations, crystal structures of five mutant forms of E.coli aspartate aminotransferase (the maleate complexes of C191S, C191F, C191Y and C191W, and C191S without maleate) were determined at about 2 A resolution in the presence of the pyridoxal phosphate cofactor. The overall three-dimensional fold of each mutant enzyme is the same as that of the wild-type protein, but there is a rotation of the mutated side chain around its C(alpha)-C(beta) bond. This side chain rotation results in a change in the pattern of hydrogen bonding connecting the mutant residue and the protonated Schiff base of the cofactor, which could account for the altered pK(a) of the Schiff base imine nitrogen that was reported previously. These results demonstrate how residues outside the active site can be important in helping determine the subtleties of the active site amino acid geometries and interactions and how mutations outside the active site can have effects on catalysis. In addition, these results help explain the surprising result previously reported that, for some mutant proteins, replacement of a buried cysteine with an aromatic side chain did not destabilize the protein fold. Instead, rotation around the C(alpha)-C(beta) bond allowed each large aromatic side chain to become buried in a nearby pocket without large changes in the enzyme's backbone geometry.
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PMID:The role of residues outside the active site: structural basis for function of C191 mutants of Escherichia coli aspartate aminotransferase. 1070 49

Crystallography shows that aspartate aminotransferase binds dicarboxylate substrate analogues by bonds to Arg292 and Arg386, respectively [Jager, J, Moser, M. Sauder, U. & Jansonius, J. N. (1994) J. Mol. Biol., 239, 285-305]. The contribution of each interaction to the conformational change that the enzyme undergoes when it binds ligands via these residues, is assessed by probing mutant forms of the enzyme lacking either or both arginines. The probes used are NaH(3)BCN which reduces the cofactor imine, the reactive substrate analogue, cysteine sulfinate and proteolysis by trypsin. The unreactive substrate analogue, maleate, is used to induce closure. Each single mutant reacted only 2.5-fold more slowly with NaH(3)BCN than the wild-type indicating that charge repulsion by the arginines contributes little to maintaining the open conformation. Maleate lowered the rate of reduction of the wild-type enzyme more than 300-fold but had little effect on the reaction of the mutant enzymes indicating that the ability of this dicarboxylate analogue to bridge the arginines precisely makes the major contribution to closure. The R292L mutant reacted 20 times more rapidly with cysteine sulfinate than R386L but 5 x 10(4) times more slowly than the wild-type enzyme, consistent with the proposal that enzyme's catalytic abilities are not developed unless closure is induced by bridging of the arginines. Proteolysis of the mutants with trypsin showed that, in the wild-type enzyme, the bonds most susceptible to trypsin are those contributed by Arg292 and Arg386. Proteolysis of the next most susceptible bond, at Arg25 in the double mutant, was protected by maleate demonstrating the presence of an additional site on the enzyme for binding dicarboxylates.
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PMID:Contributions of the substrate-binding arginine residues to maleate-induced closure of the active site of Escherichia coli aspartate aminotransferase. 1124 82

Acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity has been attributed to covalent binding of the reactive metabolite N-acetyl-p-benzoquinone imine to cysteine groups on proteins as an acetaminophen-cysteine conjugate. We report a high-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection (HPLC-ECD) assay for the conjugate with increased sensitivity compared with previous methods. Previous methods to quantitate the protein-bound conjugate have used a competitive immunoassay or radiolabeled acetaminophen. With HPLC-ECD, the protein samples are dialyzed and then digested with protease. The acetaminophen-cysteine conjugate is then quantified by HPLC-ECD using tyrosine as an internal reference. The lower limit of detection of the assay is approximately 3 pmol/mg of protein. Acetaminophen protein adducts were detected in liver and serum as early as 15 min after hepatotoxic dosing of acetaminophen to mice. Adducts were also detected in the serum of acetaminophen overdose patients. Analysis of human serum samples for the acetaminophen-cysteine conjugate revealed a positive correlation between acetaminophen-cysteine conjugate concentration and serum aspartate aminotransferase (AST) activity or time. Adducts were detected in the serum of patients even with relatively mild liver injury, as measured by AST and alanine aminotransferase. This assay may be useful in the diagnostic evaluation of patients with hepatotoxicity of an indeterminate etiology for which acetaminophen toxicity is suspect.
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PMID:Determination of acetaminophen-protein adducts in mouse liver and serum and human serum after hepatotoxic doses of acetaminophen using high-performance liquid chromatography with electrochemical detection. 1190 Oct 99

Metabolism of the common industrial gas tetrafluoroethylene in mammals results in the formation of S-(1,1,2,2)-tetrafluoroethyl-L-cysteine (TFEC), which can be bioactivated by a mitochondrial C-S lyase commonly referred to as beta-lyase. The resultant "reactive intermediate", difluorothioacetyl fluoride (DFTAF), is a potent thioalkylating and protein-modifying species. Previously, we have identified mitochondrial HSP70, HSP60, aspartate aminotransferase, and the E2 and E3 subunits of the alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (alphaKGDH) complex as specific proteins structurally modified during this process. Moreover, functional alterations to the alphaKGDH complex were also detected and implicated in the progression of injury. We report here the identification, by tandem mass spectrometry, and functional characterization of the final remaining major protein species modified by DFTAF, previously designated as P99(unk), as mitochondrial aconitase. Aconitase activity was maximally inhibited by 56.5% in renal homogenates after a 6 h exposure to TFEC. In comparison to alphaKGDH, aconitase inhibition (up to 79%) in a cell culture model for TFEC-mediated cytotoxicity was greater and preceded alphaKGDH inhibition, indicating that aconitase modification may constitute an early event in TFEC-mediated mitochondrial damage and cell death. These findings largely define the initial lesion of TFEC-mediated cell death and also have implications for the modeling of mitochondrial enzymatic architecture and the localization and identity of renal mitochondrial cysteine S-conjugate beta-lyase.
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PMID:Mitochondrial aconitase modification, functional inhibition, and evidence for a supramolecular complex of the TCA cycle by the renal toxicant S-(1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl)-L-cysteine. 1202 83

Rat liver mitochondrial aspartate aminotransferase (a homodimer) was shown to catalyse a beta-lyase reaction with three nephrotoxic halogenated cysteine S-conjugates [ S -(1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl)-L-cysteine, S -(1,2-dichlorovinyl)-L-cysteine and S -(2-chloro-1,1,2-trifluoroethyl)-L-cysteine], and less effectively so with a non-toxic cysteine S-conjugate [benzothiazolyl-L-cysteine]. Transamination competes with the beta-lyase reaction, but is not favourable. The ratio of beta elimination to transamination in the presence of S -(1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl)-L-cysteine and 2-oxoglutarate is >100. Syncatalytic inactivation by the halogenated cysteine S-conjugates is also observed. The enzyme turns over approx. 2700 molecules of halogenated cysteine S-conjugate on average for every monomer inactivated. Kidney mitochondria are known to be especially sensitive to toxic halogenated cysteine S-conjugates. Evidence is presented that 15-20% of the cysteine S-conjugate beta-lyase activity towards S -(1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl)-L-cysteine in crude kidney mitochondrial homogenates is due to mitochondrial aspartate aminotransferase. The possible involvement of mitochondrial aspartate aminotransferase in the toxicity of halogenated cysteine S-conjugates is also discussed.
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PMID:Mitochondrial aspartate aminotransferase catalyses cysteine S-conjugate beta-lyase reactions. 1213 66

Several haloalkenes are metabolized in part to nephrotoxic cysteine S-conjugates; for example, trichloroethylene and tetrafluoroethylene are converted to S-(1,2-dichlorovinyl)-L-cysteine (DCVC) and S-(1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl)-L-cysteine (TFEC), respectively. Although DCVC-induced toxicity has been investigated since the 1950s, the toxicity of TFEC and other haloalkene-derived cysteine S-conjugates has been studied more recently. Some segments of the US population are exposed to haloalkenes either through drinking water or in the workplace. Therefore, it is important to define the toxicological consequences of such exposures. Most halogenated cysteine S-conjugates are metabolized by cysteine S-conjugate beta-lyases to pyruvate, ammonia, and an alpha-chloroenethiolate (with DCVC) or an alpha-difluoroalkylthiolate (with TFEC) that may eliminate halide to give a thioacyl halide, which reacts with epsilon-amino groups of lysine residues in proteins. Nine mammalian pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP)-containing enzymes catalyze cysteine S-conjugate beta-lyase reactions, including mitochondrial aspartate aminotransferase (mitAspAT), and mitochondrial branched-chain amino acid aminotransferase (BCAT(m)). Most of the cysteine S-conjugate beta-lyases are syncatalytically inactivated. TFEC-induced toxicity is associated with covalent modification of several mitochondrial enzymes of energy metabolism. Interestingly, the alpha-ketoglutarate- and branched-chain alpha-keto acid dehydrogenase complexes (KGDHC and BCDHC), but not the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDHC), are susceptible to inactivation. mitAspAT and BCAT(m) may form metabolons with KGDHC and BCDHC, respectively, but no PLP enzyme is known to associate with PDHC. Consequently, we hypothesize that not only do these metabolons facilitate substrate channeling, but they also facilitate toxicant channeling, thereby promoting the inactivation of proximate mitochondrial enzymes and the induction of mitochondrial dysfunction.
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PMID:Toxic, halogenated cysteine S-conjugates and targeting of mitochondrial enzymes of energy metabolism. 1216 74

The mitochondrial and cytosolic branched-chain aminotransferases (BCAT(m) and BCAT(c)) are homodimers in the fold type IV class of pyridoxal 5'-phosphate-containing enzymes that also contains D-amino acid aminotransferase and 4-amino-4-deoxychorismate lyase (a beta-lyase). Recombinant human BCAT(m) and BCAT(c) were shown to have beta-lyase activity toward three toxic cysteine S-conjugates [S-(1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl)-L-cysteine, S-(1,2-dichlorovinyl)-L-cysteine, and S-(2-chloro-1,1,2-trifluoroethyl)-L-cysteine] and toward beta-chloro-L-alanine. Human BCAT(m) is a much more effective beta-chloro-L-alanine beta-lyase than two aminotransferases (cytosolic and mitochondrial isozymes of aspartate aminotransferase) previously shown to possess this activity. BCAT(m), but not BCAT(c), also exhibits measurable beta-lyase activity toward a relatively bulky cysteine S-conjugate [benzothiazolyl-L-cysteine]. Benzothiazolyl-L-cysteine, however, inhibits the L-leucine-alpha-ketoglutarate transamination reaction catalyzed by both enzymes. Inhibition was more pronounced with BCAT(m). In the presence of beta-lyase substrates and alpha-ketoisocaproate (the alpha-keto acid analogue of leucine), no transamination could be detected. Therefore, with an amino acid containing a good leaving group in the beta position, beta-elimination is greatly preferred over transamination. Both BCAT isozymes are rapidly inactivated by the beta-lyase substrates. The ratio of turnover to inactivation per monomer in the presence of toxic halogenated cysteine S-conjugates is approximately 170-280 for BCAT(m) and approximately 40-50 for BCAT(c). Mitochondrial enzymes of energy metabolism are especially vulnerable to thioacylation and inactivation by the reactive fragment released from toxic, halogenated cysteine S-conjugates such as S-(1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethyl)-L-cysteine. The present results suggest that BCAT isozymes may contribute to the mitochondrial toxicity of these compounds by providing thioacylating fragments, but inactivation of the BCAT isozymes might also block essential metabolic pathways.
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PMID:Human mitochondrial and cytosolic branched-chain aminotransferases are cysteine S-conjugate beta-lyases, but turnover leads to inactivation. 1250 94

The homodimeric, pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP)-dependent enzyme glutamine transaminase K/cysteine conjugate beta-lyase (GTK/beta-lyase) has been implicated in the bioactivation of chemopreventive compounds. This paper describes the first homology model of rat renal GTK/beta-lyase and its active site residues, deduced from molecular dynamics (MD) simulations of the binding mode of 13 structurally diverse cysteine S-conjugates and amino acids after Amber-parametrization of PLP. Comparison with Thermus thermophilus aspartate aminotransferase (tAAT) and Trypanosoma cruzi tyrosine aminotransferase (tTAT), used as templates for modeling GTK/beta-lyase, showed that the PLP-binding site of GTK/beta-lyase is highly conserved. Binding of the ligand alpha-carboxylate-group occurred via the conserved residues Arg(432) and Asn(219), and Asn(50) and Gly(70). Two pockets accommodated the various ligand side chains. A small pocket, located directly above PLP, was of a highly hydrophobic and aromatic character. A larger pocket, formed partly by the substrate access channel, was more hydrophilic and notably involved the salt bridge partners Glu(54) and Arg(99*) (* denotes the other subunit). Ligand-binding residues included Leu(51), Phe(71), Tyr(135), Phe(373) and Phe(312*), and pi-stacking interactions were often observed. Tyr(135) and Asn(50) were prominent in hydrogen bonding with the sulfur-atom of cysteine S-conjugates. The observed binding mode of the ligands corresponded well with their experimentally determined inhibitory potency toward GTK/beta-lyase. The current homology model thus provides a starting point for further validation of the role of active site residues in ligand-binding by means of mutagenesis studies. Ultimately, insight in the binding of ligands to GTK/beta-lyase may result in the rational design of new ligands and selective inhibitors.
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PMID:Modeling and molecular dynamics of glutamine transaminase K/cysteine conjugate beta-lyase. 1279 91


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