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Events in the last decade have taught us that we are now, more than ever, vulnerable to fatal zoonotic diseases such as those caused by haemorrhagic fever viruses, influenza, rabies and BSE/vCJD. Future research activities should focus on solutions to these problems arising at the interface between animals and humans. A 4-fold classification of emerging zoonoses was proposed: Type 1: from wild animals to humans (Hanta); Type 1 plus: from wild animals to humans with further human-to-human transmission (AIDS); Type 2: from wild animals to domestic animals to humans (Avian flu) and Type 2 plus: from wild animals to domestic animals to humans, with further human-to-human transmission (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome, SARS). The resulting holistic approach to emerging infections links microbiology, veterinary medicine, human medicine, ecology, public health and epidemiology. As emerging 'new' respiratory viruses are identified in many wild and domestic animals, issues of interspecies transmission have become of increasing concern. The development of safe and effective human and veterinary vaccines is a priority. For example, the spread of different influenza viruses has stimulated influenza vaccine development, just as the spread of Ebola and Marburg viruses has led to new approaches to filovirus vaccines. Interdisciplinary collaboration has become essential because of the convergence of human disease, animal disease and a common approach to biosecurity. High containment pathogens pose a significant threat to public health systems, as well as a major research challenge, because of limited experience in case management, lack of appropriate resources in affected areas and a limited number of animal research facilities in developed countries. Animal models that mimic certain diseases are key elements for understanding the underlying mechanisms of disease pathogenesis, as well as for the development and efficacy testing of therapeutics and vaccines. An updated veterinary curriculum is essential to empower future graduates to work in an international environment, applying international standards for disease surveillance, veterinary public health, food safety and animal welfare.
Zoonoses Public Health 2009 Aug
PMID:Emerging infections: a tribute to the one medicine, one health concept. 1948 15

Nearly 75% of all emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) that impact or threaten human health are zoonotic. The majority have spilled from wildlife reservoirs, either directly to humans or via domestic animals. The emergence of many can be attributed to predisposing factors such as global travel, trade, agricultural expansion, deforestation/habitat fragmentation, and urbanization; such factors increase the interface and/or the rate of contact between human, domestic animal, and wildlife populations, thereby creating increased opportunities for spillover events to occur. Infectious disease emergence can be regarded as primarily an ecological process. The epidemiological investigation of EIDs associated with wildlife requires a trans-disciplinary approach that includes an understanding of the ecology of the wildlife species, and an understanding of human behaviours that increase risk of exposure. Investigations of the emergence of Nipah virus in Malaysia in 1999 and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in China in 2003 provide useful case studies. The emergence of Nipah virus was associated with the increased size and density of commercial pig farms and their encroachment into forested areas. The movement of pigs for sale and slaughter in turn led to the rapid spread of infection to southern peninsular Malaysia, where the high-density, largely urban pig populations facilitated transmission to humans. Identifying the factors associated with the emergence of SARS in southern China requires an understanding of the ecology of infection both in the natural reservoir and in secondary market reservoir species. A necessary extension of understanding the ecology of the reservoir is an understanding of the trade, and of the social and cultural context of wildlife consumption. Emerging infectious diseases originating from wildlife populations will continue to threaten public health. Mitigating and managing the risk requires an appreciation of the connectedness between human, livestock and wildlife health, and of the factors and processes that disrupt the balance.
Zoonoses Public Health 2009 Aug
PMID:Bats and emerging zoonoses: henipaviruses and SARS. 1949 90

The occurrence of avian influenza A(H5N1) in Hong Kong in 1997 led to the development of a "One-Health" approach to deal with emerging infectious diseases that has been applied to other emergent diseases such as SARS and the pandemic H1N1 2009. Evaluation of poultry marketing and production systems and investigations at the animal-human interface, led to defining the routes of human exposure to avian influenza and factors that allowed virus to multiply and persist. Active and systematic surveillance of apparently healthy as well as diseased poultry and wild birds provided evidence of ongoing virus evolution in the wider region. Epidemiological studies, supplemented with molecular epidemiology, helped to elucidate the role of the poultry marketing system and live poultry markets in the persistence of avian influenza viruses and provided evidence for the impact of interventions designed to interrupt virus transmission. Enhanced bio-security, active surveillance together with targeted and evidence-based interventions in the poultry production, and marketing system together with poultry vaccination has prevented further human H5N1 disease and minimized outbreaks of poultry disease in Hong Kong. Similar strategies have led to the understanding of the emergence of SARS and provided options for preventing the re-emergence of this disease. Surveillance of influenza in swine has provided insights into the emergence of the 2009 pandemic, to the reverse zoonosis of the pandemic virus from humans to swine and to the emergence of novel reassortant viruses within swine. "One Health" strategies are not "cost-free" and require sensitive implementation to optimize food-safety and food security, while safeguarding the economics of animal husbandry and the environment and remaining sensitive to cultural practices.
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PMID:One health: the Hong Kong experience with avian influenza. 2290 69

Increasing incidences of emerging and re-emerging diseases that are mostly zoonotic (e.g. severe acute respiratory syndrome, avian influenza H5N1, pandemic influenza) has led to the need for a multidisciplinary approach to tackling these threats to public and animal health. Accordingly, a global movement of 'One-Health/One-Medicine' has been launched to foster collaborative efforts amongst animal and human health officials and researchers to address these problems. Historical evidence points to the fact that pandemics caused by influenza A viruses remain a major zoonotic threat to mankind. Recently, a range of mathematical and computer simulation modelling methods and tools have increasingly been applied to improve our understanding of disease transmission dynamics, contingency planning and to support policy decisions on disease outbreak management. This review provides an overview of methods, approaches and software used for modelling the spread of zoonotic influenza viruses in animals and humans, particularly those related to the animal-human interface. Modelling parameters used in these studies are summarized to provide references for future work. This review highlights the limited application of modelling research to influenza in animals and at the animal-human interface, in marked contrast to the large volume of its research in human populations. Although swine are widely recognized as a potential host for generating novel influenza viruses, and that some of these viruses, including pandemic influenza A/H1N1 2009, have been shown to be readily transmissible between humans and swine, only one study was found related to the modelling of influenza spread at the swine-human interface. Significant gaps in the knowledge of frequency of novel viral strains evolution in pigs, farm-level natural history of influenza infection, incidences of influenza transmission between farms and between swine and humans are clearly evident. Therefore, there is a need to direct additional research to the study of influenza transmission dynamics in animals and at the animal-human interface.
Zoonoses Public Health 2013 Sep
PMID:A review of simulation modelling approaches used for the spread of zoonotic influenza viruses in animal and human populations. 2293 96

Zoonoses represent a public health risk recently pointed out by the spreading of previously unknown human infectious diseases emerging from animal reservoirs such as severe acute respiratory syndrome and avian influenza caused by H5N1-virus. These outbreaks have shown that animal breeding activities can pose a significant public health risk. Until now, the risk of zoonoses has probably been underestimated, particularly in occupational settings. The emergence or re-emergence of bacterial (Mycobacterium bovis and Brucella spp) or viral (hepatitis E virus) infections shows that zoonoses should be considered as emerging risks in agricultural and animal breeding and should be addressed by specific preventive interventions. Close cooperation and interaction between veterinarians, occupational health physicians and public health operators is necessary, for a worldwide strategy to expand interdisciplinary collaborations and communications in all aspects of health care for humans, animals and the environment. This is what the One Health Approach was intended to be.
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PMID:Emerging zoonoses: the "one health approach". 2295 35

In 2012 a new viral emergent human disease appeared in the Middle East. This entity was named MERS for' Middle East respiratory syndrome'. By January 9, 2014, the disease had already struck 178 persons of whom 75 died from respiratory failure and diarrhoea. As the new disease was very similar to the deadly SARS (2002-2003) and since it was provoked by a Betacoronavirus, chiroptera were first suspected to be at the origin of this infection. Morever, recent studies performed in Saudi Arabia showed that one individual of the bat Taphozous perforatus harbored a short nucleotide segment identical to the homologous segment present in the viral strain isolated from the index-case of the epidemic. In addition, many strains of Betacoronavirus more or less related to those responsible for the MERS disease in man have been isolated from bats in Africa, Asia and Europe. However, another hypothesis was simultaneously proposed incriminating dromedary (Camelus dromedarius L.) as a likely actor in the transmission to human beings of the disease.We then reviewed data relative to other viral zoonosis in which dromedary was possibly implicated. This led to the provisional conclusion that this large mammal might play a role in the dissemination of the MERS-COV, the etiologic agent of the disease. This is based on epidemiological data and results of several serological surveys in animals.
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PMID:[Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS): bats or dromedary, which of them is responsible?]. 2453 3

Bats have been demonstrated to be natural reservoirs of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS CoV) and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) CoV. Faecal samples from 248 individuals of 20 bat species were tested for partial RNA-dependent RNA polymerase gene of CoV and 57 faecal samples from eight bat species were tested positive. The highest detection rate of 44% for Scotophilus kuhlii, followed by 30% for Rhinolophus monoceros. Significantly higher detection rates of coronaviral RNA were found in female bats and Scotophilus kuhlii roosting in palm trees. Phylogenetic analysis classified the positive samples into SARS-related (SARSr) CoV, Scotophilus bat CoV 512 close to those from China and Philippines, and Miniopterus bat CoV 1A-related lineages. Coronaviral RNA was also detected in bat guano from Scotophilus kuhlii and Myotis formosus flavus on the ground and had potential risk for human exposure. Diverse bat CoV with zoonotic potential could be introduced by migratory bats and maintained in the endemic bat population in Taiwan.
Zoonoses Public Health 2016 12
PMID:Detection of the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Related Coronavirus and Alphacoronavirus in the Bat Population of Taiwan. 2717 3

Cross-species transmission of viruses from wildlife animal reservoirs poses a marked threat to human and animal health 1 . Bats have been recognized as one of the most important reservoirs for emerging viruses and the transmission of a coronavirus that originated in bats to humans via intermediate hosts was responsible for the high-impact emerging zoonosis, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) 2-10 . Here we provide virological, epidemiological, evolutionary and experimental evidence that a novel HKU2-related bat coronavirus, swine acute diarrhoea syndrome coronavirus (SADS-CoV), is the aetiological agent that was responsible for a large-scale outbreak of fatal disease in pigs in China that has caused the death of 24,693 piglets across four farms. Notably, the outbreak began in Guangdong province in the vicinity of the origin of the SARS pandemic. Furthermore, we identified SADS-related CoVs with 96-98% sequence identity in 9.8% (58 out of 591) of anal swabs collected from bats in Guangdong province during 2013-2016, predominantly in horseshoe bats (Rhinolophus spp.) that are known reservoirs of SARS-related CoVs. We found that there were striking similarities between the SADS and SARS outbreaks in geographical, temporal, ecological and aetiological settings. This study highlights the importance of identifying coronavirus diversity and distribution in bats to mitigate future outbreaks that could threaten livestock, public health and economic growth.
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PMID:Fatal swine acute diarrhoea syndrome caused by an HKU2-related coronavirus of bat origin. 2961 17

Zoonoses are frequently reported, and outbreaks of the highly pathogenic influenza virus, severe acute respiratory syndrome, and Middle East respiratory syndrome have occurred recently, in Africa, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia. Sterilization using a chemical reactor with plasma assisted catalytic technology (PACT) was investigated. Tests were carried out on the feline calicivirus (FCV) vaccine strain F9, which is a surrogate of airborne pathogen human norovirus. Results showed that the PACT device could inactivate FCV, which passed through the plasma chamber. Sterilization rate may be more than 99.99% (below the detection limit). These results indicate that PACT may be an effective mean to inactivate many viruses, including human norovirus, and potentially other airborne, infectious microorganisms.
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PMID:Preventing the spread of norovirus-like infections by the airborne route using plasma assisted catalytic technology (PACT). 2970 3

In a borderless era, infectious diseases that are prevalent in other countries may also spread to Japan at any time. Among such diseases, attention should particularly be paid to emerging, re-emerging, and zoonosis, arthropod-borne infectious diseases, as well as those occurring after major disasters. Important emerging infectious diseases include SARS, swine influenza, MERS, and infection by antimicrobial-resistant bacteria, while zoonosis is represented by rabies. Rabies is a vaccine-preventable, but vaccination is insufficient due to high costs in some areas. Arthropod-borne infectious diseases, such as malaria, dengue fever, Chikungu- nya fever, Zika fever, and yellow fever, are also important. Learning various lessens from the management of these diseases in other countries, human resource development is currently being promoted in Japan. [Review].
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PMID:[Recent Trends in Infection and Related Examinations: Infectious Diseases and Their Control in Other Countries (General Remarks)]. 3060 54


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