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Four groups of 15-19 adult ISA Brown hens were studied in pens to assess the relationship between social status and use of perches and nestboxes. This was to test the hypothesis that subordinate hens use these resources more by day, for avoiding dominants, but that dominants use perches more at night, for roosting. The experiment consisted of a 5-week pre-treatment period, when no perches were present, and a 4-week treatment period, when each group was tested with different perch treatments (No, Low, Medium, High). All groups were observed systematically in each week, when all interactions of three types (aggressive peck, non-aggressive peck, approach/avoidance) in a group were recorded by noting the instigator and recipient (from numbered wing tags) onto a matrix. Proportions of time that each bird spent using perches and nestboxes, by day and at night, were also recorded. The results indicate that social status of individual laying hens is relatively stable across time and can be based reliably on counts of either aggressive pecks or approach/avoidances, but not non-aggressive pecks. Aggressive pecks were the most frequent type of interaction observed, and were reduced by the presence of perches. Use of nestboxes, but not perches, was greater at night than by day. There were weak tendencies for perches, and to a lesser extent nestboxes, to be used more by lower ranking birds by day, but not at night. There was some evidence of increased use of these resources by higher ranking birds at night. It is concluded that provision of perches reduces bird density on the floor (where nearly all interactions occurred), allows subordinates a means of avoiding dominants by day, reduces frequency of agonistic interactions, and should thus benefit laying hen welfare.
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PMID:Use of perches and nestboxes by laying hens in relation to social status, based on examination of consistency of ranking orders and frequency of interaction. 1124 80

1. Production-induced osteoporosis in caged laying hens is thought to represent a major constraint to continued genetic development. 2. The relationship between body weight, egg production, skeletal abnormalities characteristic of osteoporosis, femur calcium and bone histology was examined in a flock of ISA Brown layers from 16 to 68 weeks of age. 3. Experiment 2 examined a flock of Lohmann browns for skeletal abnormalities characteristic of osteoporosis at 45 weeks of age and the severity of abnormalities was then related to body weight and production between 18 and 45 weeks of age. 4. Average body weight declined in the ISA flock between 35 and 45 weeks of age, which correlated with a loss of skeletal calcium reserves (15% to 20%) and with the induction of osteoporosis. Between 42 and 68 weeks of age, birds were able to replenish femur calcium levels. 5. Birds in the Lohmann flock showing severe skeletal abnormalities at 45 weeks of age experienced weight loss between 27 and 31 weeks of age, which was associated with a decrease in egg production of 18%. After 35 weeks of age, egg production of these birds recovered to similar levels as unaffected or mildly affected birds. 6. It seems likely that better standardisation of the equilibrium between growth, skeletal reserves, food intake and egg production can reduce osteoporosis, as well as improving the productive potential of modern laying strains.
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PMID:Sequential studies of skeletal calcium reserves and structural bone volume in a commercial layer flock. 1142 36

A commercial egg-type chicken (ISA Brown; CEC) and a dual-purpose pure breed of the Korean Native Chicken (KNC) were compared for yolk to albumen (Y:A) ratio and their major egg characteristics at seven different ages. The eggs from KNC were significantly (P < 0.01) lighter in egg, albumen, and shell weight than those from CEC. However, the yolk weight and Y:A ratio of the eggs from KNC were significantly (P < 0.01) heavier or larger than the ones of CEC. The effect of age on the yolk, shell weight, and shell thickness was highly significant (P < 0.01), whereas significant differences were not found for Y:A ratio and other major egg components. The breed-by-age-of-hen interactions were significant for shell weight (P < 0.03) and shell thickness (P < 0.01). The yolk, albumen, and shell weight were positively (P < 0.001) associated with egg weight in both breeds. The association of Y:A ratio with egg weight in both breeds also were highly significant (P < 0.001) but negative. The results of the present study indicated that the different effects on the Y:A ratio were due to breed rather than age. Results suggest that the eggs from KNC are more desirable for use in products made of yolk than for consumption as table eggs.
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PMID:Effect of breed and age of hens on the yolk to albumen ratio in two different genetic stocks. 1146 45

In two experiments we evaluated the effect of water and acetic acid soaking on ME, apparent amino acid (AA) availability, and true AA availability of vetch (V) and ervil (E) seeds. In Experiment 1, the feedstuffs were untreated (U) V or coarsely ground V soaked in water (1:10, wt/vol) at 40 C for 72 h with a water change every 12 h (40WV), vetch soaked in 1% acetic acid for 24 h at 40 C (40AAV) or at room temperature (RTAAV), or dehulled soybean meal (SBM). In Experiment 2, E seeds were subjected to the same soaking methods, and the ingredients were UE, 40WE, 40AAE, RTAAE, and SBM. Each feedstuff was precision-fed to five individually caged mature ISA Brown roosters. A group of five roosters was used to correct for metabolic and endogenous energy and amino acid losses. The AME, AMEn, TME, and TMEn of UV and UE (in parentheses) were 2,558 (2,663), 2,840 (3,098), 3,026 (3,154), and 2,934 (3,176) kcal/kg DM, respectively, and were, in general, higher than those of SBM. The TMEn of V increased as a result of soaking in water or acetic acid, whereas that of E decreased in 40WE and RTAAE by 492 and 920 kcal/kg DM, respectively (P < 0.05). The apparent availability of most essential amino acids in UV and UE was lower (P < 0.05) than that of SBM. Acetic acid soaking of V, irrespective of temperature, and E at 40 C resulted in apparent AA availability similar to that of SBM except for Met. The true AA availability of V treated or not, and that of E soaked at 40 C, were similar to that of SBM. Results indicated that UV and UE are energy rich ingredients but detrimental to amino acid availability. Soaking the seeds in acetic acid at room temperature and at 40 C improved the nutritional value of V and E, respectively.
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PMID:Metabolizable energy values and amino acid availability of vetch (Vicia sativa) and ervil (Vicia ervilia) seeds soaked in water and acetic acid. 1146 57

We examined the effects of light intensity (LI) from photostimulation to 45 wk of age on egg production parameters and egg size characteristics and on ovarian and carcass morphology at sexual maturity and 45 wk of age in four layer strains. Floor housed pullets were raised in a light-tight facility from 1 d of age until housing in individually illuminated cages at 17 wk of age. Two white egg strains, ISA-White (ISA-W) and Shaver 2000 (S2000), and two brown egg strains, ISA-Brown (ISA-B) and Shaver 579 (S579), were used. Pullets were randomly assigned to a processing group that was killed at sexual maturity (first oviposition) (Group 1) or kept to 45 wk (Group 2). Birds were photostimulated at 18 wk of age using a LI of 1, 5, 50, or 500 lx (4 x 4 factorial design). One bird from Group 1 and one from Group 2 were caged together in individually lit cages (one brown and one white egg layer). Carcass and ovarian morphology data were examined as related to Strain, LI, or the interaction of Strain and LI. The time from photostimulation to sexual maturity did not differ due to LI, but was shorter for brown egg strains (ISA-B = 19.9 d, S579 = 20.2 d) than for white egg strains (ISA-W = 26.6 d, S2000 = 28.1 d). Body weight at sexual maturity differed among all strains, with the white egg strains having the lowest BW. Ovary weight was the greatest in ISA-W birds, in which 8.0 large yellow follicles (LYF) were present compared to 6.8 in S2000 birds. The LI affected ovary development, as birds with the 1 lx exposure had lower ovary weights and fewer LYF than did 50 lx birds, suggesting that the 1 lx LI did not result in an adequate photostimulatory cueing of sexual maturation. The threshold LI for a complete morphological response to photostimulation in this study was 5 lx. Strain differences in BW observed at sexual maturity continued to 45 wk of age. Light intensity affected 45 wk BW, with 5 lx LI birds weighing 7.2 and 8.7% more than the 50 and 500 lx birds, respectively. On an absolute basis, brown egg stains carried significantly more breast muscle at 45 wk of age than did white egg strains. The fatpad was heavier on a relative basis for brown egg layers than white egg layers. The 1 lx hens had lower 45-wk ovary weights than did the other three LI treatments. These data support the conclusion that with the development of highly specific genetic strains, it is increasingly important to match the environmental management practices to a particular hen's genotype.
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PMID:Effects of light intensity from photostimulation in four strains of commercial egg layers: 1. Ovarian morphology and carcass parameters. 1149 63

The effects of light intensity (LI) from photostimulation to 45 wk of age on egg production parameters and egg size characteristics were examined in four layer strains. Floor housed pullets were raised in a light-tight facility from 1 d of age until housing in individually illuminated cages at 17 wk of age. At 17 wk of age, two white egg strains, ISA-White (ISA-W) and Shaver 2000 (S2000), and two brown egg strains, ISA-Brown (ISA-B) and Shaver 579 (S579), were assigned to a processing group [Group 1 was killed at sexual maturity (first oviposition); Group 2 was kept to 45 wk] and were photostimulated at 18 wk of age using a LI of 1, 5, 50, or 500 lx (4 x 4 factorial design). One bird from Group 1 and one bird Group 2 were caged together in individually lit cages (one brown and one white egg layer). Cages were equipped with hardware to monitor egg laying time. Data of individual egg weight and time of lay were kept on Group 2 birds until 45 wk of age. Egg production data were analyzed for hen-day production, laying sequence length, egg and egg component weights, time of lay, and egg interval time as related to strain or LI. Hen-day production was greater in brown egg strains (ISA-B = 86.7%, S579 = 88.1%) than in white egg strains (ISA-W = 83.4%, S2000 = 82.3%) and was reduced in birds under 1 lx compared to 5 or 50 lx. A LI of 1 lx resulted in reduced egg production and laying sequence length compared to birds with a 50 or 500 lx. The effects of LI were strain dependant, however. Postpeak sequence length and egg production declined at more rapidly under 500 lx compared to other LI in brown egg strains, indicating possible development of a photorefractory condition. Mean settable egg weight was lower in 500 lx birds (56.1 g) compared to other groups (mean = 57.9 g), reducing total egg mass produced. Mean interval between successive eggs in a sequence was lengthened in 1 lx birds compared to other LI groups. Mean time of lay was earlier in brown egg strains than in white egg strains by 48 min. Mean time of lay was shifted to occur later by an increasing LI. Light intensity affected sexual maturation and egg production, as layers had differential responses to lighting. LI of 1 lx and 500 lx were found to be limiting to the egg production efficiency of layers. Whereas the birds receiving 1 lx had a reduced rate of egg production, those receiving 500 lx had reduced egg size later in the production period in combination with reduced shell quality, which indicated that inadequate feed intake under high LI conditions may be a factor affecting layer stocks. Exposure to high LI reduced egg size and total egg mass produced. Ultimately, the brown egg strains appeared to be more susceptible to the negative effects of low or high LI, indicating the importance of matching management practices to the particular hen genotype.
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PMID:Effects of light intensity from photostimulation in four strains of commercial egg layers: 2. Egg production parameters. 1149 64

Eggs from ISA-White and ISA-Brown hens between 28 and 59 wk of age were stored for up to 10 d to produce a sample of 5,763 eggs differing in the three major determinants of albumen quality. Eggs from ISA-Brown hens were larger and had less yolk, more albumen, and a greater percentage of shell than those from ISA-White hens. Egg size increased with increasing age of the hen, although more for the ISA-White hens than the ISA-Brown hens, and the yolk increased more in size than did the shell and albumen. During storage, albumen weight decreased and yolk weight increased slightly. The height of the inner thick albumen of eggs from ISA-White hens was greater than that of eggs from ISA-Brown hens, and it decreased as the hen age increased and with increasing time in storage. The pH of the albumen was not different between strains, and the effect of hen age was small, but it increased with time in storage. Regression coefficients of the height of the inner thick albumen on the weight of the egg were between -0.058 and 0.102, showing that the fixed regression of 0.05-mm albumen height per gram of egg implied by the Haugh unit is wrong. The statistical association between albumen pH and egg weight was very low. If albumen quality is being used as a measure of freshness, then the albumen height is biased by the strain and age of hen, whereas the albumen pH is not.
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PMID:Effect of storage and layer age on quality of eggs from two lines of hens. 1149 79

1. Two lines of commercial hybrid layers (Tetra and ISA Brown) were reared from hatch to 30 weeks of age in groups of 8. The objectives of the experiment were to evaluate the significance of the different selection practices involved in the development of the lines and to assess the potential association between selected behavioural states and the potential for feather damage and cannibalism. 2. Behavioural tests related to fear (tonic immobility, novel object, open field), sociality (runway, proximity in the home pen) and pecking (feather bunch and focal observations of inter-bird and environmental pecking) were conducted at 0 to 2, 5 to 7, 12 to 14, 19 to 21 and 29 to 31 weeks of age. Scan sampling of general behaviour was also conducted at these ages. 3. Underlying sociality was greater in Tetras than in ISA Brown hens. 4. There were no apparent overall strain differences in fearfulness although ISA Brown hens showed significantly longer tonic immobility fear reactions than Tetras at 31 weeks of age. 5. ISA Brown hens gave and received more gentle pecks than Tetra hens whereas preening was commoner among Tetras. There were no strain differences in the number of pecks at litter or food. 6. As birds aged they showed less avoidance of novel objects and Tetras, though not ISA Browns, showed progressively shorter tonic immobility responses. Birds of both strains spent less time resting, more foraging (pecking and scratching) and pecked more at the feather bunch at older ages. 7. Measures taken in the TI, open field, runway (social affiliation) and feather bunch tests were stable over time whereas focal observations of pecking at hens and the environment were not. 8. Factor Analysis showed that 3 factors defined by the novel object test, environmental pecking and pecking ata feather bunch explained most of the variation in the correlation matrix between summary measures for the 8 behavioural traits.
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PMID:Age-related changes in fear, sociality and pecking behaviours in two strains of laying hen. 1157 15

1. Groups of ISA Brown pullets were transferred from 8- to 16-h photoperiods at 34, 44 or 54 d. In each group, 12 birds were injected on alternate days over a 12-d period starting 6 d before the change in photoperiod with beta-oestradiol-3-benzoate (1 mg/kg body weight) or with arachis oil vehicle (controls). Short-day controls were similarly injected from 28 to 40 d. Long-day (16 h) controls were also included in the trial but were not injected. Age at first egg (AFE) was recorded and plasma luteinising hormone (LH) concentrations were measured around the time of oestradiol treatment. 2. Mean AFE for birds photostimulated at 34 d was not significantly different from short-day controls. Birds photostimulated at 44 and 54 d matured at similar ages but 3 weeks earlier than short-day controls (P<0.05). 3. There was a tendency for oestradiol to advance AFE for birds photostimulated at 34 d (P=0.15) but to delay AFE following photostimulation at 44 d (P=0.23). Oestradiol significantly delayed AFE for the birds photostimulated at 54 d (P=0.01). 4. Plasma LH levels during 6 d of oestradiol injection but before transfer from 8- to 16-h photoperiods tended to fall between 28 and 34 d, were relatively constant between 38 and 44 d, but declined significantly between 48 and 54 d. Following photostimulation at 34 d, increases in plasma LH levels for oestradiol-injected birds were significantly greater than for controls. Oestradiol treatment had no significant effect on changes in plasma LH concentrations after photostimulation at 44 or 54 d. 5. This trial confirms previous work showing that pullets are unresponsive to photostimulation before 6 weeks of age. It also demonstrates that raising circulating oestrogen levels by injecting 0.5 mg/kg oestradiol benzoate on alternate days enhances the LH response to photostimulation at 34-d, but only very slightly sensitises a 34-d old bird to an increase in photoperiod which, 10 d later, is capable of advancing AFE in control birds by 24 d. Increased circulating oestrogen might be a factor which allows pullets to advance AFE in response to an increase in daylength.
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PMID:Effect of exogenous oestradiol and lighting regime on age at first egg in domestic pullets. 1157 30

Two layer feeding trials were conducted to demonstrate the nutritive and economic values of recently developed high oil corn (HOC) in Korea. A corn-soybean meal-based commercial layer diet was chosen as the control diet. The yellow dent corn in the control diet was replaced with HOC to give an isocaloric diet, or replaced with HOC on a 1:1 basis to give a high energy diet. In Trial 1, 510 23-wk-old ISA Brown layers were allotted to three dietary treatments with five replicates per treatment. In Trial 2, 600 38-wk-old Hy-Line Brown layers were allotted to three dietary treatments, again with five replicates per treatment. Both trials were conducted for 15 wk. To measure the ME values of typical corn and HOC, two metabolism trials were performed with layers and adult roosters. The HOC used in this trial contained approximately 94% higher crude fat (6.60% as-fed basis) compared with typical corns. The gross energy, AMEn, and TME values of HOC, are 5.7 to 7.7% higher than those of typical corns, indicating that the energy use of each corn were similar. Oil from the HOC contains 6.5 to 8.3% more oleic acid and 6 to 7% less linoleic acid than oil from typical corns. HOC feeding, on an isocaloric basis or on 1:1 replacement with typical corn, did not exert any effect on various laying performances, including the physical quality of egg. This result reflects the quality of the commercial diet chosen as the control diet, which was already fairly good, such that the performance was already maximal. The polyunsaturated fatty acid content in yolk from hens fed HOC was higher than that from hens fed typical corns, reflecting higher linoleic acid content in the HOC. HOC feeding decreased the saturated fatty acid content in the yolk, due primarily to decreased palmitic acid. If used alone replacing typical corn completely in a layer diet, the acceptance price of HOC was estimated to be 154 won/kg when the price of typical corn was 131 won/kg (118:100). When both corns were allowed to be used, the acceptance price of HOC increased to 184 won/kg (140:100), indicating that a lot cheaper layer diet can be formulated when both HOC and typical corn are used in laying hen diet formulation.
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PMID:Nutritive and economic values of high oil corn in layer diet. 1173 67


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