Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound
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Query: UMLS:C0038187 (starvation)
 24,951 document(s) hit in 31,850,051 MEDLINE articles (0.00 seconds)

The insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1)-AKT-mTOR pathways sense the availability of nutrients and mitogens and respond by signaling for cell growth and division. The p53 pathway senses a variety of stress signals which will reduce the fidelity of cell growth and division, and responds by initiating cell cycle arrest, senescence, or apoptosis. This study explores four p53-regulated gene products, the beta1 and beta2 subunits of the AMPK, which are shown for the first time to be regulated by the p53 protein, TSC2, PTEN, and IGF-BP3, each of which negatively regulates the IGF-1-AKT-mTOR pathways after stress. These gene products are shown to be expressed under p53 control in a cell type and tissue-specific fashion with the TSC2 and PTEN proteins being coordinately regulated in those tissues that use insulin-dependent energy metabolism (skeletal muscle, heart, white fat, liver, and kidney). In addition, these genes are regulated by p53 in a stress signal-specific fashion. The mTOR pathway also communicates with the p53 pathway. After glucose starvation of mouse embryo fibroblasts, AMPK phosphorylates the p53 protein but does not activate any of the p53 responses. Upon glucose starvation of E1A-transformed mouse embryo fibroblasts, a p53-mediated apoptosis ensues. Thus, there is a great deal of communication between the p53 pathway and the IGF-1-AKT and mTOR pathways.
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PMID:The regulation of AMPK beta1, TSC2, and PTEN expression by p53: stress, cell and tissue specificity, and the role of these gene products in modulating the IGF-1-AKT-mTOR pathways. 1740 11

Signaling through the mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) is positively regulated by amino acids and insulin. PRAS40 associates with mTORC1 (which contains raptor) but not mTORC2. PRAS40 interacts with raptor, and this requires an intact TOR-signaling (TOS) motif in PRAS40. Like TOS motif-containing proteins such as eIF4E-binding protein 1 (4E-BP1), PRAS40 is a substrate for phosphorylation by mTORC1. Consistent with this, starvation of cells of amino acids or treatment with rapamycin alters the phosphorylation of PRAS40. PRAS40 binds 14-3-3 proteins, and this requires both amino acids and insulin. Binding of PRAS40 to 14-3-3 proteins is inhibited by TSC1/2 (negative regulators of mTORC1) and stimulated by Rheb in a rapamycin-sensitive manner. This confirms that PRAS40 is a target for regulation by mTORC1. Small interfering RNA-mediated knockdown of PRAS40 impairs both the amino acid- and insulin-stimulated phosphorylation of 4E-BP1 and the phosphorylation of S6. However, this has no effect on the phosphorylation of Akt or TSC2 (an Akt substrate). These data place PRAS40 downstream of mTORC1 but upstream of its effectors, such as S6K1 and 4E-BP1.
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PMID:PRAS40 is a target for mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 and is required for signaling downstream of this complex. 1760 71

The calcium/calmodulin-dependent kinase that phosphorylates and inactivates eukaryotic elongation factor 2 (eEF2 kinase; eEF2K) is subject to multisite phosphorylation, which regulates its activity. Phosphorylation at Ser359 inhibits eEF2K activity even at high calcium concentrations. To identify the kinase that phosphorylates Ser359 in eEF2K, we developed an extensive purification protocol. Tryptic mass fingerprint analysis identified it as cdc2 (cyclin-dependent kinase 1). cdc2 co-purifies with Ser359 kinase activity and cdc2-cyclin B complexes phosphorylate eEF2K at Ser359. We demonstrate that cdc2 contributes to controlling eEF2 phosphorylation in cells. cdc2 is activated early in mitosis. Kinase activity against Ser359 in eEF2K also peaks at this stage of the cell cycle and eEF2 phosphorylation is low in mitotic cells. Inactivation of eEF2K by cdc2 may serve to keep eEF2 active during mitosis (where calcium levels rise) and thereby permit protein synthesis to proceed in mitotic cells. Amino-acid starvation decreases cdc2's activity against eEF2K, whereas loss of TSC2 (a negative regulator of mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1(mTORC1)) increases it. These data closely match the control of Ser359 phosphorylation and indicate that cdc2 may be regulated by mTORC1.
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PMID:cdc2-cyclin B regulates eEF2 kinase activity in a cell cycle- and amino acid-dependent manner. 1833 51

Rheb is a new member of the small G proteins of the Ras superfamily in eukaryotic organisms and controls various physiological processes. Activity of Rheb is regulated by Tsc2, a GTPase-activating protein (GAP). In this study, we have identified Candida albicans homologs of Rheb (named as Rhb1) and Tsc2. Deletion of the RHB1 gene showed enhanced sensitivity to rapamycin (an inhibitor of TOR kinase), suggesting that Rhb1 is associated with the TOR signaling pathway in C. albicans. Further analysis indicated RHB1 and TSC2 are involved in nitrogen starvation-induced filamentation, likely by controlling the expression of MEP2 whose gene product is an ammonium permease and a sensor for the nitrogen signal. Moreover, we have demonstrated that Rhb1 is also involved in cell wall integrity pathway, by transferring signals through the TOR kinase and the Mkc1 MAP kinase pathway. Together, this study brings new insights into the complex interplay of signaling and regulatory pathways in C. albicans.
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PMID:A small G protein Rhb1 and a GTPase-activating protein Tsc2 involved in nitrogen starvation-induced morphogenesis and cell wall integrity of Candida albicans. 1909 72

PHLPP belongs to a novel family of protein phosphatases that serve as negative regulators of Akt. There are two isoforms, PHLPP1 and PHLPP2, identified in this family. Our previous studies indicated a tumor suppressor role of both PHLPP isoforms in colon cancer. Here we report that the expression of PHLPP is controlled by mTOR-dependent protein translation in colon and breast cancer cells. Treating cells with rapamycin or knockdown of mTOR using RNAi results in a marked decrease of PHLPP protein expression. In contrast, stable knockdown of TSC2, a negative regulator of mTOR activity, increases PHLPP expression. The rapamycin-mediated down-regulation of PHLPP is blocked by expression of a rapamycin-insensitive mutant of p70S6K. In addition, depletion of 4E-BP1 expression by RNAi results in an increase of PHLPP expression and resistance to rapamycin-induced down-regulation. Moreover, inhibition of mTOR activity by amino acid or glucose starvation reduces PHLPP expression in cells. Functionally, we show that rapamycin-mediated inhibition of PHLPP expression contributes to rapamycin resistance in colon cancer cells. Thus, our studies identify a compensatory feedback regulation in which the activation of Akt is inhibited by up-regulation of PHLPP through mTOR, and this mTOR-dependent expression of PHLPP subsequently determines the rapamycin sensitivity of cancer cells.
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PMID:mTOR-dependent regulation of PHLPP expression controls the rapamycin sensitivity in cancer cells. 2117 69

Several types of cellular stress induce expression of growth arrest and DNA damage protein 34 (Gadd34). Autophagy occurs under both basal conditions and conditions of stress, such as starvation. Gadd34 and autophagy are both induced under starvation conditions. In this study we found that starvation induced the expression of Gadd34, reduced mTOR activity, and induced autophagy in wild type mice, but not Gadd34 KO mice. Gadd34 bound to and dephosphorylated pTSC2 at Thr1462. Dephosphorylation of TSC2 during the starvation time period leads to the suppression of mTOR, which is a potent inhibitor of autophagy. We concluded that starvation-induced Gadd34 suppresses mTOR and, thereby, induces autophagy.
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PMID:Gadd34 induces autophagy through the suppression of the mTOR pathway during starvation. 2143 66

It has been well documented that cells deficient in either TSC1 or TSC2 are highly sensitive to various cell death stimuli. In this study, we utilized the TSC2 (-/-) mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) to study the involvement of autophagy in the enhanced susceptibility of TSC2-null cells to cell death. We first confirmed that both TSC1-null and TSC2-null MEFs are more sensitive to apoptosis in response to amino acid starvation (EBSS) and hypoxia. Second, we found that both the basal and inducible autophagy in TSC2 (-/-) MEFs is impaired, mainly due to constitutive activation of mTORC1. Third, suppression of autophagy by chloroquine and Atg7 knockdown sensitizes TSC2 (+/+) cells, but not TSC2 (-/-) cells, to EBSS-induced cell death. Conversely, the inhibition of mTORC1 by raptor knockdown and rapamycin activates autophagy and subsequently rescues TSC2 (-/-) cells. Finally, in starved cells, nutrient supplementations (insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and leucine) enhanced cell death in TSC2 (-/-) cells, but reduced cell death in TSC2 (+/+) cells. Taken together, these data indicate that constitutive activation of mTORC1 in TSC2 (-/-) cells leads to suppression of autophagy and enhanced susceptibility to stress-mediated cell death. Our findings thus provide new insights into the complex relationships among mTOR, autophagy and cell death, and support the possible autophagy-targeted intervention strategies for the treatment of TSC-related pathologies.
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PMID:Impaired autophagy due to constitutive mTOR activation sensitizes TSC2-null cells to cell death under stress. 2180 51

Hyperactivation of mechanistic target of rapamycin (MTOR) is a common feature of human cancers, and MTOR inhibitors, such as rapamycin, are thus becoming therapeutics in targeting certain cancers. However, rapamycin has also been found to compromise the efficacy of chemotherapeutics to cells with hyperactive MTOR. Here, we show that loss of TSC2 or PTEN enhanced etoposide-induced DNA damage and apoptosis, which was blunted by suppression of MTOR with either rapamycin or RNA interference. cAMP response element-binding protein 1 (CREB1), a nuclear transcription factor that regulates genes involved in survival and death, was positively regulated by MTOR in mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) and cancer cell lines. Silencing Creb1 expression with siRNA protected MTOR-hyperactive cells from DNA damage-induced apoptosis. Furthermore, loss of TSC2 or PTEN impaired either etoposide or nutrient starvation-induced autophagy, which in turn, leads to CREB1 hyperactivation. We further elucidated an inverse correlation between autophagy activity and CREB1 activity in the kidney tumor tissue obtained from a TSC patient and the mouse livers with hepatocyte-specific knockout of PTEN. CREB1 induced DNA damage and subsequent apoptosis in response to etoposide in autophagy-defective cells. Reactivation of CREB1 or inhibition of autophagy not only improved the efficacy of rapamycin but also alleviated MTOR inhibition-mediated chemoresistance. Therefore, autophagy suppression of CREB1 may underlie the MTOR inhibition-mediated chemoresistance. We suggest that inhibition of MTOR in combination with CREB1 activation may be used in the treatment of cancer caused by an abnormal PI3K-PTEN-AKT-TSC1/2-MTOR signaling pathway. CREB1 activators should potentiate the efficacy of chemotherapeutics in treatment of these cancers.
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PMID:MTOR inhibition attenuates DNA damage and apoptosis through autophagy-mediated suppression of CREB1. 2418

TOR complex 1 (TORC1) is a potent anabolic regulator of cellular growth and metabolism. When cells have sufficient amino acids, TORC1 is active due to its lysosomal localization mediated via the Rag GTPases. Upon amino acid removal, the Rag GTPases release TORC1, causing it to become cytoplasmic and inactive. We show here that, upon amino acid removal, the Rag GTPases also recruit TSC2 to the lysosome, where it can act on Rheb. Only when both the Rag GTPases and Rheb are inactive is TORC1 fully released from the lysosome. Upon amino acid withdrawal, cells lacking TSC2 fail to completely release TORC1 from the lysosome, fail to completely inactivate TORC1, and fail to adjust physiologically to amino acid starvation. These data suggest that regulation of TSC2 subcellular localization may be a general mechanism to control its activity and place TSC2 in the amino-acid-sensing pathway to TORC1.
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PMID:Regulation of TORC1 in response to amino acid starvation via lysosomal recruitment of TSC2. 2452 68

14-3-3 proteins are implicated in the regulation of proteins involved in a variety of signaling pathways. 14-3-3-dependent protein regulation occurs through phosphorylation-dependent binding that results, in many cases, in the release of survival signals in cells. Autophagy is a cell digestion process that contributes to overcoming nutrient deprivation and is initiated under stress conditions. However, whether autophagy is a cell survival or cell death mechanism remains under discussion and may depend on context. Nevertheless, autophagy is a cellular process that determines cell fate and is tightly regulated by different signaling pathways, some of which, for example MAPK, PI3K and mTOR, are tightly regulated by 14-3-3 proteins. It is therefore important to understand the role of 14-3-3 protein in modulating the autophagic process. Within this context, direct binding of 14-3-3 to mTOR regulatory proteins, such as TSC2 and PRAS40, connects 14-3-3 with autophagy regulatory processes. In addition, 14-3-3 binding to human vacuolar protein sorting 34 (hVps34), a class III phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3KC3), indicates the involvement of 14-3-3 proteins in regulating autophagosome formation. hVps34 is involved in vesicle trafficking processes such as autophagy, and its activation is needed for initiation of autophagy. Chromatography and overlay techniques suggest that hVps34 directly interacts with 14-3-3 proteins under physiological conditions, thereby maintaining hVps34 in an inactive state. In contrast, nutrient starvation promotes dissociation of the 14-3-3–hVps34 complex, thereby enhancing hVps34 lipid kinase activity. Thus, 14-3-3 proteins are regulators of autophagy through regulating key components of the autophagic machinery. This review summarizes the role of 14-3-3 protein in the control of target proteins involved in regulating the master switches of autophagy.
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PMID:14-3-3 Proteins are Regulators of Autophagy. 2471 May 29


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