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This article provides a review of the incidence, pathophysiology, and treatment of deep vein thrombosis (DVT) in pregnancy, a rare but serious complication of pregnancy. The incidence of DVT in pregnancy varies widely, but it is a leading cause of maternal morbidity in both the United States and the United Kingdom. Risk factors during pregnancy include prolonged bed rest or immobility, pelvic or leg trauma, and obesity. Additional risk factors are preeclampsia, Cesarean section, instrument-assisted delivery, hemorrhage, multiparity, varicose veins, a previous history of a thromboembolic event, and hereditary or acquired thrombophilias such as Factor V Leiden. Heparin is the anticoagulant of choice to treat active thromboembolic disease or to administer for thromboprophylaxis, but low molecular-weight heparin is being used with increasing frequency in the pregnant woman. Perinatal nurses should be aware of the symptoms, diagnostic tools, and treatment options available to manage active thrombosis during pregnancy and in the intrapartum and postpartum periods.
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PMID:Deep vein thrombosis in pregnancy. 1512 76

Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is a liver disease characterized by the histological features of steatohepatitis in the absence of significant alcohol consumption. The natural history of NASH is poorly defined. Here we report our experience with a patient to illustrate the clinical course of cirrhotic NASH. A 67-year-old woman was admitted with hematemesis due to the rupture of esophageal varices. Her varices were treated by endoscopic ligation and endoscopic sclerotherapy. Her medical history was unremarkable. Both the patient and her family members were asked about alcohol intake several times during her illness, but all of them denied a history of alcohol intake. She had insulin resistance, as determined by homeostasis model assessment. Serological tests for viral hepatitis were all negative. Viral hepatitis, autoimmune liver disease, iron overload, and metabolic liver disorders were all excluded. Imaging tests failed to reveal any steatosis, because of the presence of severe fibrosis. Liver biopsy showed moderate steatosis, moderate inflammation, ballooning degeneration, and Mallory bodies. We diagnosed NASH associated with cirrhosis based on the clinicopathological features. Almost 2 years later, she developed hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and she died of multiple HCCs. At autopsy, tumor invasion was seen throughout liver segment 8. The noncancerous liver showed burnt-out NASH; the steatosis, necroinflammation, ballooning degeneration, and Mallory bodies had all disappeared. In Japan, the prevalence of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease will increase as obesity has been increasing, so it is important to understand how to diagnose NASH. When a patient has NASH, careful follow-up should be performed.
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PMID:Nonalcoholic steatohepatitis: cirrhosis, hepatocellular carcinoma, and burnt-out NASH. 1562 89

Chronic venous disease is a common condition presenting to physicians in Western Europe and the United States. This article provides a comprehensive review of the published literature in the English language, from 1942 to the present, and focuses on the prevalence of chronic venous insufficiency and varicose veins, as well as the involved risk factors. Prevalence estimates vary widely by geographic location, with the highest reported rates in Western countries. Reports of prevalence of chronic venous insufficiency vary from < 1% to 40% in females and from < 1% to 17% in males. Prevalence estimates for varicose veins are higher, <1% to 73% in females and 2% to 56% in males. The reported ranges in prevalence estimations presumably reflect differences in the population distribution of risk factors, accuracy in application of diagnostic criteria, and the quality and availability of medical diagnostic and treatment resources. Established risk factors include older age, female gender, pregnancy, family history of venous disease, obesity, and occupations associated with orthostasis. Yet, there are several factors that are not well documented, such as diet, physical activity and exogenous hormone use, which may be important in the development of chronic venous disease and its clinical manifestations.
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PMID:The epidemiology of chronic venous insufficiency and varicose veins. 1572 61

Osteoarthritis of knee joint is the disease that can be easily found at the ordinary examination. The aging and the continuous long-term stress are the most important ones among the many kind of causing factors. Most of osteoarthritis is appeared in medial femorotibial joint. The second largest number of osteoarthritis is appeared in patellofemoral joint. The first appearance of the disease is over forty and the number of the patients increases as patients grow older. Patients are almost female. Complication of osteoarthritis is obesity and varix of the lower limbs. 85% of the Japanese patients have varus deformity but few have valgus deformity. Main symptom is is pain that can be treated conservatively by medication and physical therapy. Medical care and the following effect are differ from the existence of injury of meniscus and ligament, and the level of the disease.
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PMID:[Osteoarthritis of knee joint--standard concept and diagnosis]. 1577 75

Chronic venous disease of the legs occurs commonly in the general population in the Western world. Estimates of the prevalence of varicose veins vary widely from 2-56% in men and from 1-60% in women. These variations reflect differences in variability of study populations including age, race and gender, methods of measurement and disease definition. Definitions of chronic venous disease may rely on reports of varicose veins by study participants, based on self-diagnosis or recall of a diagnosis, or on a standardized physical examination. Venous ulceration is less common, affecting approximately 0.3% of the adult population. Age and pregnancy have been established as risk factors for developing varicose veins. Evidence on other risk factors for venous disease is inconclusive. Prolonged standing has been proposed, but results of studies should be interpreted with caution given the difficulty in measuring levels of posture. Obesity has been suggested as a risk factor in women, but appears to be an aggravating factor rather than a primary cause. Other postulated risk factors include dietary intake and smoking, but evidence is lacking. Longitudinal studies using standardized methods of evaluation are required before the true incidence of chronic venous disease and associated risk factors can be determined.
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PMID:Epidemiology of chronic venous disease. 1846 17

Bardet-Biedl syndrome (BBS) is an autosomal recessive disorder characterized by rod-cone dystrophy, polydactyly, central obesity, mental retardation, and hypogonadism. Although many organs are involved in BBS, hyperammonemia caused by portal hypertension has been reported previously in only a single patient. We describe the second such patient with BBS and hyperammonemia, associated with fluctuating mental impairment. The patient was a 17-year-old boy with BBS. Esophageal, gastric, and rectal varices and mild hepatic dysfunction started to develop at 5 years of age. A liver biopsy showed dilated portal veins with mild fibrosis in portal tract. From the age of 17 years, he often had forced laughter with apparently normal consciousness. Laboratory examinations revealed hyperammonemia (112.2mg/ml). Oral medication lowered the blood ammonia level to 69.9 mg/ml, reduced the frequency of forced laughter, and improved his IQ. Patients with BBS may have additional diseases or conditions that affect mental status, such as hyperammonemia. Physicians should explore the underlying causes of these conditions and treat such patients, who already have a compromised quality of life.
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PMID:Treatable fluctuating mental impairment in a patient with Bardet-Biedl syndrome. 1893 27

Varicose veins are twisted, dilated veins most commonly located on the lower extremities. Risk factors include chronic cough, constipation, family history of venous disease, female sex, obesity, older age, pregnancy, and prolonged standing. The exact pathophysiology is debated, but it involves a genetic predisposition, incompetent valves, weakened vascular walls, and increased intravenous pressure. A heavy, achy feeling; itching or burning; and worsening with prolonged standing are all symptoms of varicose veins. Potential complications include infection, leg ulcers, stasis changes, and thrombosis. Some conservative treatment options are avoidance of prolonged standing and straining, elevation of the affected leg, exercise, external compression, loosening of restrictive clothing, medical therapy, modification of cardiovascular risk factors, reduction of peripheral edema, and weight loss. More aggressive treatments include external laser treatment, injection sclerotherapy, endovenous interventions, and surgery. Comparative treatment outcome data are limited. There is little evidence to preferentially support any single treatment modality. Choice of therapy is affected by symptoms, patient preference, cost, potential for iatrogenic complications, available medical resources, insurance reimbursement, and physician training.
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PMID:Management of varicose veins. 1906 22

Clinical impact of protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) on the outcome of liver cirrhosis is well documented. As a candidate interventional modality to improve PEM in cirrhosis, effects of branched-chain amino acid (BCAA) supplementation on event-free survival and quality of life (QOL) was first reported by Yoshida et al. in 1989. Although critical arguments still continue regarding the effects of BCAA, several randomized trials in the last 5 years have brought positive results, and seem to have settled the discussion in a favorable direction for the efficacy of BCAA in liver cirrhosis. Actually, The European Society for Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism (ESPEN) upgraded the recommendation of BCAA supplementation in decompensated liver cirrhosis in the latest revision of its guidelines in 2006, by referring to the literatures from Italy and Japan. Particularly in these two long-term randomized studies with 1-2 years-supplementation, event-free survival was estimated by employing composite endpoints such as aggravation of hepatic failure (ascites, peripheral edema, hepatic encephalopathy, and jaundice), rupture of esophageal or gastric varices, development of liver cancer, and death from any cause. Both trials agreed on the effect of BCAA to reduce the incidence of hepatic failure, thus contributing to the rise in the event-free survival. Quality of life is another essential marker of outcome survey. Marchesini, Muto, and Nakaya reported the improved QOL in cirrhotics with BCAA supplementation. In particular, quantitative analysis of QOL measured by Short Form 36 (SF-36) questionnaire demonstrated a significant recovery of general heath perception score in BCAA supplemented patients in a randomized trial. In this article, the long-term outcome of BCAA treatment in liver cirrhosis will be reviewed with its action mechanisms. In addition, the effects of BCAA treatment on the incidence of liver cancer in obese patients with type C liver cirrhosis, significance of obesity as a risk factor for type C liver cancer, and a possible role of Body Mass Index to estimate the histological grade of fat deposition in the liver will be briefly discussed.
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PMID:Long-term outcome of branched-chain amino acid treatment in patients with liver cirrhosis. 1912 40

A comprehensive understanding of the pathogenesis of venous thrombosis is essential for identifying patients at increased risk and who may therefore benefit from more aggressive preventive and therapeutic measures. As for other pathologies, the pathogenesis of venous thromboembolism is multifactorial. All risk factors, either congenital or acquired, are relatively "innocent" when considered alone. However, when an individual is unlucky enough to inherit one or more abnormality, compounded in many cases by environmental hazards, that person may be propelled over a threshold that precipitates the development of thrombosis. An appropriate analogy is that where "the last drop makes the cup run over." A reinterpretation of the traditional Virchow's triad (abnormal vessel wall, abnormal blood flow, and abnormal blood constituents) was provided by Eberhard Mammen throughout his research, and this has contributed greatly to the understanding of the pathogenesis of this serious disorder. Mammen postulated immobility as the leading event, because it reduced blood flow as a result of decreased muscle contraction. The subsequent "stasis of flow" led to accumulation of blood within the intramuscular sinuses, especially of the calf, triggering hypercoagulability due to local accumulation of activated clotting factors and coagulation activation products and the simultaneous consumption of blood coagulation inhibitors. On Mammen's "hit list" nearly 20 years ago were included (among inherited abnormalities) decreased protein C, protein S, antithrombin III, plasminogen, and tissue plasminogen activator, and increased plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, whereas (among acquired predisposing conditions) surgery, trauma, previous thromboembolism, prolonged immobility and paralysis, malignancy, congestive heart failure, obesity, advanced age, pregnancy and puerperium, varicose veins, and oral contraceptives were also identified. Some two decades later, the situation has perhaps not changed so much, although studies continue to expand our knowledge of this topic, clarifying the relative contribution of each single risk factor in the pathogenesis of venous thrombosis.
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PMID:Pathogenesis of venous thromboembolism: when the cup runneth over. 1921 13

Many of medical patients are significant risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE). VTE is the most common cause of preventable death in hospitalized patients. Prophylaxis is highly effective in reducing the risk of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism and should be used in most hospitalized patients. Various strategies improve adherence to evidence-based guidelines on the use of prophylaxis, including audit and feedback, and automatic reminders. The important clinical risk factors for PE (or venous thromboembolism VTE) include advanced age, general anaesthesia, prolonged immobility or paralysis, previous VTE, cancer, duration of surgery, orthopaedic surgery of lower limb leg, hip or pelvic fracture, major trauma, stroke, obesity, varicose veins, postoperative infection and heart failure. Medical patients ad bed rest or who are sick are in moderate risk of VTE and evidence based guidelines recommended thromboprophylaxis with low molecular weight heparin, or low dose of unfractionated heparin or Fondaparinux. For all situations both guidelines recommended against the use of aspirin for VTE prevention.
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PMID:[Venous thromboembolism prophylaxis in internal medicine]. 1937 45


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