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Query: UMLS:C0024530 (malaria)
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The contribution of spraying DDT and HCH for malaria control towards the contamination of bovine milk was investigated by analysing milk samples collected from preselected localities sprayed with either DDT or HCH in the Punjab. A direct correlation was found between the amounts of residues of these insecticides in milk and their typical usage pattern for the mosquito control programme. It is considered that these results may have significant bearing on the regulatory control of DDT and HCH residues in milk.
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PMID:Contamination of bovine milk with DDT and HCH residues in relation to their usage in malaria control programme. 615 89

The resurgence of malaria in India began in 1966 and the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu were no exception to this phenomenon. In both states the peak occurrence came in 1976. Malaria was largely confined to highly vulnerable and receptive areas. The problem of increased incidence was particularly associated with the development of several irrigation and hydro-electric schemes. Improperly maintained irrigation systems and reservoirs provided ideal breeding grounds. The present paper examines the scope and limitations of a major anti-malaria activity, namely residual insecticide spraying as adopted and practised in rural vector control programmes in irrigation development project areas. Past experiences (as during the National Malaria Eradication programme, 1958-1965) and current practices are reviewed on the basis of selected examples. Eradication programme, 1958-1965) and current practices are reviewed on the basis of selected examples. In view of the current re-emergence of the disease, the states are faced with new obstacles to residual insecticide spraying such as (a) the development of resistance of malaria vectors to DDT and other alternative compounds like BHC (benzene hexachloride), changing vector behaviour with avoidance of contact with indoor insecticide deposits on walls, (c) environmental contamination (risks of chemicals), (d) extensive use of insecticides and pesticides for crop protection under an expanding green revolution agricultural technology, particularly in irrigated areas and (e) the existence of outdoor resting populations of the major vector Anopheles culicifacies and their role in extra-domiciliary transmission, making residual insecticide spray less effective. Spraying operations are also hindered by the persistence of certain social and cultural factors. The custom of mud plastering, white-washing and rethatching rural houses, for example, results in the loss of insecticide-treated surfaces. Other outdoor rural activities persist as obstacles in attempts to break the transmission cycle; washing, bathing and sleeping outdoors; illegal fishing and woodcutting at night; poorly constructed make-shift structures;housing project labourers near water sources; cattle grazing in nearby forests and human population movements related to seasonal migrants. The chain and extent of the transmission is dependent upon the malaria parasite carriers in the community (both indigenous and imported types) and the degree of contact of the community with those sites where people carry on the above activities, and on the effectiveness of surveillance operations.
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PMID:The scope and limitations of insecticide spraying in rural vector control programmes in the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu in India. 620 95

The Malaria Conference in Equatorial Africa, convened by the World Health Organization in 1950 in Kampala, Uganda, was a milestone in the history of modern malaria control activities on the continent of Africa. It presented and assessed the available international information on epidemiological aspects of this disease and attempted to coordinate the various methods of research and control of malaria. Its two main recommendations were that malaria should be controlled by all available methods, irrespective of the degree of endemicity of the disease, and that the benefits that malaria control might bring to the indigenous population should be evaluated.The first period of field research and pilot control projects in Africa was between 1950 and 1964. A large number of studies in several African countries showed that the use of residual insecticides such as DDT and HCH might decrease, at times considerably, the amount of malaria transmission, but interruption of transmission could not be achieved, except in two relatively small projects in the forest areas of Cameroon and Liberia. During the second period, from 1965 to 1974, the difficulties of malaria eradication and control in Africa became more evident because of the development of resistance of Anopheles gambiae to DDT, HCH, and dieldrin; moreover administrative, logistic, and financial problems had emerged. It became clear that the prospects for malaria control (let alone those for eradication) were related to the availability of a network of basic health services. A number of "pre-eradication" programmes were set up in order to develop better methods of malaria control and to improve the rural health infrastructures. Much field research on the chemotherapy of malaria was carried out and the value of collective or selective administration of antimalarial drugs was fully recognized, although it became obvious that this could not play an important part in the decrease of transmission of malaria in Africa.The role of research as one of the ways of solving the technical problems of malaria control in tropical Africa was stressed from the early days of the global malaria eradication programme; the past ten years have seen an immense expansion of this activity.
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PMID:Lessons learned from applied field research activities in Africa during the malaria eradication era. 639 74

In order to define the scope of vector control as a component of malaria control in the WHO African Region, examples of recent experiences with different vector control methods in this region are reviewed. Residual house spraying applied alone or in combination with mass drug administration has failed to interrupt malaria transmission in savanna areas for several technical and administrative reasons. Nevertheless, there is evidence that residual house spraying has led to an improvement in general health. However, the existence of DDT and dieldrin/HCH and lately malathion resistance in the Sudan in Anopheles gambiae s.l. would militate against the use of residual house spraying as a main tool for long-term malaria control. It should therefore be used only to reduce malaria prevalence to an acceptable level until integrated control methods can be developed and become operational.Experience with larval control, space spraying, and biological control of vectors is also reviewed, and the value of self-help methods of reducing man-vector contact under African conditions is examined. All these methods need to be more thoroughly assessed. Several proposals are made for applied field research.
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PMID:Vector control operations in the African context. 639 79

A factory for producing the pesticide hexachlorocyclohexane (HCR) in its technical grade (mix of the alpha, beta, gamma, and delta isomers), that belonged to the former Institute of Malaria Sciences, then Ministry of Education and Health, located in the "Cidade dos Meninos", county of Duque de Caxias, State of Rio de Janeiro, was closed down in 1955. Part of its production and wastes - many tons this mix - were left behind on the site. The action of winds and rain as well as the movement of the local inhabitants - approximately 1,000 people, including 400 children, have caused the scaltering of this agent. Blood specimens from the inhabitants showed a high human contamination levels, with the highest concentration (beta isomers) being found in people living within a 100 meter radius of the ruin of the factory. Local soil and pasture samples taken at distances of less than 100 m from the ruin of the former factory showed HCH isomer concentrations of the order of thousands of ppb, thus providing evidence of high environmental contamination.
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PMID:[Hexachlorocyclohexane contamination in urban areas of the south eastern region of Brazil]. 853 35

Concentrations of HCH and DDT in soil, water and whole blood were determined in two areas under malaria control. These were, (i) bioenvironmental control of malaria at BHEL, and (ii) residual spraying of insecticides in rural and urban area of Bahadrabad PHC of Hardwar district. Mean concentrations of HCH in soil and whole blood samples from BHEL was 2.26 micrograms/kg and 1.20 micrograms/l and from Bahadrabad 61.12 micrograms/kg and 24.3 micrograms/l respectively. Similarly, the mean concentration of DDT in soil and whole blood from BHEL was 3.68 micrograms/kg and 4.71 micrograms/l, while in Bahadrabad 270.51 micrograms/kg and 38.13 micrograms/l respectively. HCH and DDT were never detected in any water samples from BHEL area, while the mean concentration of these compounds in water of Bahadrabad area was 0.18 and 0.07 microgram/l respectively. Residual level of HCH and DDT were 27 and 73.5 times higher in soil and 20.2 and 8.1 times higher in whole blood samples from Bahadrabad as compared to their corresponding values from BHEL respectively.
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PMID:Determination of levels of HCH and DDT in soil, water and whole blood from bioenvironmental and insecticide-sprayed areas of malaria control. 869 Jan 33

The susceptibility status of malaria vectors to HCH and DDT was studied in Malkangiri district which has been highly endemic for malaria since many decades. An. fluviatilis is the major malaria vector and An. culicifacies is a secondary vector in the area. HCH is being used in malaria control programme from 1972 onwards. Before to that, DDT was used. This study reports that An. fluviatilis has developed resistance to HCH and is susceptible to DDT. This is the first confirmed report of resistance of this species to HCH in Malkangiri district of Orissa. An. culicifacies was found to be resistant to both the insecticides. Extensive use of pesticides in agriculture and indoor residual spraying of HCH for malaria control might have led to the development of resistance in these malaria vectors.
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PMID:A study on insecticide resistance in Anopheles fluviatilis and anopheles culicifacies to HCH and DDT in the Malkangiri district of Orissa. 893 93

One of the main reasons for the set-back in the urban malaria control programme is the peculiar biobehaviour of the principal urban malaria vector Anopheles stephensi. Certain relevant facts such as incrimination as the vector of malaria, sibling or biological species, resting habitat, manlanding behaviour, seasonal prevalence, blood meal analysis, longevity, parity status, daily survival and mortality rates of adults, breeding habitats and vertical distribution of larvae of An. stephensi have been discussed. Determination of density of the vector using various parameters and their relation to malaria endemicity in an urban situation have been reviewed. An. stephensi has become resistant to DDT, HCH, malathion and propoxur in many places in India. Hence for control source reduction, use of predators such as fish and biolarvicides such as Bacillus thuringiensis var israelensis H14 and B. sphaericus, personal protection, i.e., use of appropriate clothing, bed nets, indigenous repellents, etc., information, education and communication (IEC) are to be stressed.
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PMID:Urban malaria vector biology. 929 84

Concentrations of HCH and DDT in human and bovine milk were determined in two areas under malaria control namely, BHEL, Hardwar with bioenvironmental control strategy and rural and urban areas of Bahadrabad PHC of Hardwar district with residual spraying of insecticides. Mean HCH and DDT residues in human milk in BHEL were 0.027 and 0.021 mg/kg, while from Bahadrabad were 0.089 and 0.149 mg/kg respectively. Similarly, mean HCH and DDT contents in bovine milk from BHEL were 0.019 and 0.008 mg/kg, while 0.058 and 0.029 mg/kg, respectively from Bahadrabad. Statistically significant differences were recorded in HCH and DDT levels in human and bovine milk samples between BHEL and Bahadrabad areas of Hardwar district. The mean levels of HCH and DDT in bovine milk samples did not exceed the maximum residual limit of 0.05 mg/kg from BHEL whereas, 38.5% samples from Bahadrabad area exceeded this limit.
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PMID:HCH and DDT residues in human and bovine milk at Hardwar, India. 951 68

In Calcutta, Plasmodium falciparum cases and death due to malaria show remarkably increasing trend since 1990. The incidence of P. falciparum malaria has increased more than eleven folds in 1996 in comparison to 1990, with 0, 0, 0, 3, 7, 52 and 17 deaths in 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995 and 1996 respectively. Situation is more serious than what it is projected in official records as annual blood examination rate (ABER) in Calcutta Municipal area is poor, varying from 1.5 to 3.9 in 1993 and 1996 respectively. This is further evident from the fact that in a study area in 19 months (January 1995 to July 1996) the slide positivity rate (SPR) was 47.94% on an average 28.72% suffer from P. falciparum infection (as low as 0.5% in June 1996 and as high as 71.5% in November 1996). For the first time resistance of P. falciparum to chloroquine has been noted at RII and RIII level. The response of the same parasite strain to sulfa-pyrimethamine combination drug is very much promising. Fresh infection is occurring in all the months of the year and the favourable period is from July to November 1995 that is corroborating with Container index and Breteau index related to the vector mosquito Anopheles. Susceptibility status of An. stephensi indicates that the mosquito species has acquired resistance to DDT, BHC, propoxure and malathion but is still susceptible to fenthion and deltamethrin.
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PMID:Recent epidemiological status of malaria in Calcutta Municipal Corporation area, West Bengal. 969 22


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