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Raptors are susceptible to a broad array of established and emerging bacterial and parasitic diseases, including babesiosis, chlamydiosis, clostridiosis, coccidiosis, cryptosporidiosis, malaria, mycobacteriosis, pasteurellosis, salmonellosis, trichomoniasis, and pododermatitis. Many of these conditions are opportunistic and can be easily managed or averted with proper preventive measures related to captive management, husbandry and diet, and veterinary care. Once infected, treatment must be prompt, appropriate, and judicious. This article examines the significance, diagnosis, management, and prevention of select bacterial and parasitic pathogens of raptors.
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PMID:Management of select bacterial and parasitic conditions of raptors. 1973 6

Transforming growth factor beta-1 (TGF-beta1) is a pleiotropic cytokine with both pro- and antiinflammatory properties, depending on its environment and concentration. The present study evaluated the effects of orally-delivered TGF-beta1 on mice parenterally-infected with various protozoan parasites. We report that while orally-administered TGF-beta1 seems to confer partial protection against murine chronic babesiosis and acute trypanosomosis, no beneficial clinical effects were observed against acute babesiosis, malaria or toxoplasmosis. Taken together, these preliminary data suggest that the systemic effects conferred by exogenous TGF-beta1 could be parasite species-specific. The variations in different parasitic infections could be due to (i) intrinsic differences between parasite species and/or strains in their ability to induce production of immunosuppressive molecules and/or (ii) differences in mechanisms governing host protection against different parasitic infections.
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PMID:Preliminary studies on the effects of orally-administered Transforming Growth Factor-beta on protozoan diseases in mice. 1982 45

The possibility of combating infectious diseases with chemotherapeutically active substances depends to a large extent on the structure of the pathogenic organism. Apart from the cure of contagious pleuro-pneumonia in horses with neosalvarsan, we have, as yet, no chemotherapeutic substance which is active in virus diseases.The position is scarcely better when we turn to bacterial infections due to cocci and bacilli. These two types of infective organisms occupy the lowest level in the scale of micro-organisms. On the other hand, the spirochaetes, which also belong to the bacteria group, and, still more so, those causal organisms belonging to the protozoa, represent relatively highly differentiated species, and the more highly developed a pathogenic organism is, the more points for attack it appears to offer to the action of chemotherapeutic substances.It is, therefore, not to be wondered at that the best results with chemotherapeutically active substances have been obtained in spirochaetal diseases (syphilis, relapsing fever, framboesia, etc.), and above all, in protozoal diseases. There is scarcely a protozoal disease of man which cannot be cured nowadays by early treatment with the appropriate synthetic drug. (Sleeping sickness, malaria, amoebic dysentery, leishmaniasis.) Epizootics resembling human diseases, as for example, trypanoses, are also relatively easily dealt with by the same drugs as have been found of value in the treatment of disease in man. On the other hand, there has been a lack of success, up to the present, in the treatment of those diseases of animals which are not generally related to the tropical diseases of man. The most important of these epizootics are the piroplasmoses, which are caused by babesiae and theileriae and which are found, not only in tropical and subtropical regions, but also in temperate zones.In this paper the discovery of a new remedy against piroplasmosis will be reported (acaprin).Further, advice will be given of a new class of substances, which have an actual chemotherapeutic action in streptococcal infections (prontosil, prontosil S), so that one can hope to be able in the future also to attack bacterial infections due to cocci chemotherapeutically.
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PMID:The Chemotherapy of Infectious Diseases caused by Protozoa and Bacteria: (Section of Tropical Diseases and Parasitology). 1999 Jun 5

Over the past decade or so, our understanding of the biology of apicomplexan parasites has increased dramatically, particularly in the case of malaria. Notable achievements are the availability of complete genome sequences, transcriptome and proteome profiles and the establishment of in vitro transfection techniques for asexual-stage malaria parasites. Interestingly, despite their major economic importance and striking similarities with malaria, Babesia parasites have been relatively ignored, but change is on the horizon. Here, we bring together recent work on Babesia bovis parasites which are beginning to unravel the molecular mechanisms that underlie the pathogenesis of babesiosis and highlight some opportunities and challenges that lie ahead.
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PMID:Recent insights into alteration of red blood cells by Babesia bovis: moovin' forward. 2059 44

Transfusion-acquired babesiosis can be an asymptomatic or self-limited febrile hemolytic illness in a healthy host. A persistent, relapsing, and/or fulminant course with the development of life-threatening complications may be seen in immunocompromised or splenectomized patients. As in malaria, erythrocyte parasitemia is often associated with nonimmune hemolysis, and can be treated with erythrocytapheresis. Just as warm autoantibodies have been reported in malaria infection, the development of autoantibody-mediated immune hemolysis has been reported in babesiosis. We treated a previously healthy male with multiple injuries from a motor vehicle accident necessitating massive transfusion. Late in the hospitalization, his blood smear revealed Babesia microti, confirmed by PCR study and serology. This was eventually traced to a unit of blood from an asymptomatic blood donor that was transfused during his initial trauma care. Specific antibiotic therapy was begun, and severe hemolysis from a high parasite burden required red blood cell exchange which led to rapid abatement of the hemolysis. He had a positive DAT (IgG with a pan-reactive eluate) but no serum autoantibody. This persisted for 10 days following cessation of hemolysis, and became negative while still on antibiotics while his parasite burden became undetectable. Reports of autoimmunity associated with community acquired babesiosis often have severe hemolysis from their autoantibodies, but our case shows that autoantibodies may also follow transfusion-acquired babesiosis. The nature of the autoantigen is unknown.
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PMID:Autoimmunity in transfusion babesiosis: a spectrum of clinical presentations. 2082 20

Acid sensing ion channels (ASICs) are implicated in various brain functions including learning and memory and are involved in a number of neurological disorders such as pain, ischemic stroke, depression, and multiple sclerosis. We have recently defined ASICs as one of receptor targets of aromatic diamidines in neurons. Aromatic diamidines are DNA-binding agents and have long been used in the treatment of leishmaniasis, trypanosomiasis, pneumocystis pneumonia and babesiosis. Moreover, some aromatic diamidines are used as skin-care and baby products and others have potential to suppress tumor growth or to combat malaria. A large number of aromatic diamidines or analogs have been synthesized. Many efforts are being made to optimize the therapeutic spectrum of aromatic diamidines, i.e. to reduce toxicity, increase oral bioavailability and enhance their penetration of the blood-brain barrier. Aromatic diamidines therefore provide a shortcut of screening for selective ASIC inhibitors with therapeutic potential. Intriguingly nafamostat, a protease inhibitor for treating acute pancreatitis, also inhibits ASIC activities. Aromatic diamidines and nafamostat have many similarities although they belong to distinct classes of medicinal agents for curing different diseases. Here we delineate background, clinical application and drug development of aromatic diamidines that could facilitate the screening for selective ASIC inhibitors for research purposes. Further studies may lead to a drug with therapeutic value and extend the therapeutic scope of aromatic diamidines to combat neurological diseases.
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PMID:Design and screening of ASIC inhibitors based on aromatic diamidines for combating neurological disorders. 2085 10

The transmission of parasitic organisms through transfusion is relatively rare. Of the major transfusion-transmitted diseases, malaria is a major cause of TTIP in tropical countries whereas babesiosis and Chagas' disease pose the greatest threat to donors in the USA In both cases, this is due to the increased number of potentially infected donors. There are no reliable serologic tests available to screen donors for any of these organisms and the focus for prevention remains on adherence to donor screening guidelines that address travel history and previous infection with the etiologic agent. One goal is the development of tests that are able to screen for and identify donors potentially infectious for parasitic infections without causing the deferral of a large number of non-infectious donors or significantly increasing costs. Ideally, methods to inactivate the infectious organism will provide an element of added safety to the blood supply.
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PMID:Transfusion-transmitted parasitic infections. 2085 3

The complement system comprises several fluid-phase and membrane-associated proteins. Under physiological conditions, activation of the fluid-phase components of complement is maintained under tight control and complement activation occurs primarily on surfaces recognized as "nonself" in an attempt to minimize damage to bystander host cells. Membrane complement components act to limit complement activation on host cells or to facilitate uptake of antigens or microbes "tagged" with complement fragments. While this review focuses on the role of complement in infectious diseases, work over the past couple of decades has defined several important functions of complement distinct from that of combating infections. Activation of complement in the fluid phase can occur through the classical, lectin, or alternative pathway. Deficiencies of components of the classical pathway lead to the development of autoimmune disorders and predispose individuals to recurrent respiratory infections and infections caused by encapsulated organisms, including Streptococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitidis, and Haemophilus influenzae. While no individual with complete mannan-binding lectin (MBL) deficiency has been identified, low MBL levels have been linked to predisposition to, or severity of, several diseases. It appears that MBL may play an important role in children, who have a relatively immature adaptive immune response. C3 is the point at which all complement pathways converge, and complete deficiency of C3 invariably leads to severe infections, including those caused by meningococci and pneumococci. Deficiencies of the alternative and terminal complement pathways result in an almost exclusive predisposition to invasive meningococcal disease. The spleen plays an important role in antigen processing and the production of antibodies. Splenic macrophages are critical in clearing opsonized encapsulated bacteria (such as pneumococci, meningococci, and Escherichia coli) and intraerythrocytic parasites such as those causing malaria and babesiosis, which explains the fulminant nature of these infections in persons with anatomic or functional asplenia. Paramount to the management of patients with complement deficiencies and asplenia is educating patients about their predisposition to infection and the importance of preventive immunizations and seeking prompt medical attention.
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PMID:Infections of people with complement deficiencies and patients who have undergone splenectomy. 2093 72

Apicomplexan parasites of the genus Plasmodium, pathogens causing malaria, and the genera Babesia and Theileria, aetiological agents of piroplasmosis, are closely related. However, their mitochondrial (mt) genome structures are highly divergent: Plasmodium has a concatemer of 6-kb unit and Babesia/Theileria a monomer of 6.6- to 8.2-kb with terminal inverted repeats. Fragmentation of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes and gene arrangements are remarkably distinctive. To elucidate the evolutionary origin of this structural divergence, we determined the mt genome of Eimeria tenella, pathogens of coccidiosis in domestic fowls. Analysis revealed that E. tenella mt genome was concatemeric with similar protein-coding genes and rRNA gene fragments to Plasmodium. Copy number was 50-fold of the nuclear genome. Evolution of structural divergence in the apicomplexan mt genomes is discussed.
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PMID:Concatenated mitochondrial DNA of the coccidian parasite Eimeria tenella. 2104 65

Soluble parasite antigens (SPA) from Babesia canis have been shown to induce protective immunity when used as vaccine. In order to explain the immune mechanisms of vaccination, the precise role of SPA in the pathogenesis of canine babesiosis is under investigation. Earlier studies suggested that the plasma kallikrein system is central in the pathogenesis of babesiosis, malaria and trypanosomosis, and significant plasma kallikrein activation during acute B. bovis and P. knowlesi infections has been described. In the studies presented here dogs were experimentally infected with B. canis to investigate whether the plasma kallikrein system is activated during babesiosis infection. Results showed that prekallikrein levels decreased during episodes of peak parasitaemia. No effect was found on the kallikrein levels. In order to determine whether B. canis SPA could activate plasma kallikrein, dogs were infused with variable amounts of B. canis SPA and plasma samples were taken for (pre-) kallikrein determination. The results indicated that B. canis SPA did not affect plasma (pre-) kallikrein levels. In addition, the effect of B. canis SPA on (pre-) kallikrein levels in normal dog plasma was determined in vitro. Again, no effect on (pre-) kallikrein levels was found. The results suggest that, although the kallikrein pathway may be involved in B. canis-associated pathology, the system is not directly activated by B. canis SPA. Furthermore, infusion of B. canis SPA as well as stroma of normal dog erythrocytes triggered the production of the acute phase reactant, C-reactive protein. This suggests that the inflammatory response that is triggered during B. canis infection could be in part due to the release and exposure of self molecules. The implications of these findings are discussed.
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PMID:Soluble parasite antigens from Babesia canis do not directly activate the kallikrein system in dogs infected with Babesia canis. 2113 May 77


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