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Virtually all pediatric acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) cases result from either vertical infection (transmission from mother to child before or at birth) or infection through transfusion with blood products that contain the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The risk of passing HIV infection on to an unborn child is about 25-30% if the mother is essentially healthy and higher if the mother is already showing signs of AIDS. Since maternal antibodies can persist in the infant's blood for as long as 15 months after birth, it is difficult to tell whether a positive HIV test result in an infant under this age is valid. The clinical case definition of pediatric AIDS requires the presence of 2 major signs (weight loss or abnormally slow growth, chronic diarrhea for more than 1 months, or prolonged or intermittent fever for more than 1 month) and 2 minor signs (generalized lymph node enlargement, oropharyngeal candidiasis, recurrent infections, generalized dementia, persistent cough for more than 1 month, or confirmed infection with HIV in the mother). However, diagnosis is complicated by the fact that signs and symptoms associated with HIV infection are similar to those of other treatable diseases common among children in developing countries (e.g., malnutrition, tuberculosis, and chronic diarrhea). Mothers are advised to continue breastfeeding, even where HIV indication is indicated, since there is no evidence that nursing is a significant route of infection. In addition, there is no evidence that immunizations given by trained health workers using sterile equipment transmit HIV infection.
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PMID:Children, HIV infection and AIDS. 1228 29

Health workers have four main tools at their disposal for detecting tuberculosis (TB) in patients: clinical symptoms, tuberculin testing, x-ray of the chest, and sputum smear microscopy. The two main detection tools for children are tuberculin skin test and chest x-ray. Signs and symptoms of TB to look for in adults are persistent cough (3 weeks), blood in the sputum, persistent chest pain (1 month), increasing weakness and weight loss, and past history of TB or treatment for cough. TB treatment should not begin until a positive sputum smear is confirmed in cases of pulmonary TB. Health workers should suspect TB if children younger than 5 are in close contact with someone who has confirmed TB, have a strongly positive tuberculin test, and have clinical signs and symptoms. Further tests are usually needed to confirm the diagnosis. In many areas, tests are impossible so health workers need to diagnose TB based on history, physical examination, and clinical symptoms. TB is difficult to diagnose in children because TB is either limited inside the lung or located outside the lungs. Malnourished children with TB usually have a negative tuberculin test. Malnourished children displaying signs of TB or whose X-ray suggests TB should be treated. A recent BCG vaccination can yield a weak positive tuberculin test result. TB signs and symptoms in children are nonspecific. General signs to look for are: unexplained weight loss, anorexia, failure to thrive and gain weight, at least 2 episodes of unexplained fever, swollen lymph nodes (especially in children with HIV), and persistent cough or wheeze (2 weeks). Specific signs depend on the site of infection: whole body, brain or spine, lungs, bones and joints, skin or mucous membranes. This article contains instructions on how to do the tuberculin skin test and sputum smear microscopy.
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PMID:How to detect and diagnose TB. 1229 65

The World Health Organization (WHO) has issued exaggerated projections about AIDS deaths that the press picked up to paint an apocalyptic future for Africa. Computer models used by WHO estimate that 2-3 million people in Africa are suffering or have died from AIDS since the early 1980s and another 10 million are carrying HIV. WHO surveys during 1987 indicated HIV seroprevalence rates from 5% to 30%. The Global Program on AIDS (GPA) utilized these data to predict 6.5 million new AIDS deaths annually by 1997, which would reduce population growth in urban areas by over 30%. This projection seems to be an exaggeration. The same 1987 figures were used to predict AIDS deaths for 1992. Using the highest seroprevalence rate of 30%, the WHO model predicted a high scenario of 6 million new AIDS deaths in 1992, when in fact the cumulative cases were only 331,376 in 1994. Even the low scenario of a 5% seroprevalence rate predicted 750,000 new AIDS cases for 1992, whereas the 1% rate suggested 500,000 new AIDS cases. Another projection made in 1994 estimated only 350,000 new AIDS cases for Africa in 1994. The discrepancies between projections and recorded figures are attributable to lack of statistical data and reliable reporting of mortality. National estimates are derived from censuses and surveys which are overextrapolated. Since 1985, AIDS has been defined in Africa on the basis of clinical observation (chronic diarrhea or prolonged fever and persistent cough or herpes) because of lack of HIV testing facilities. However, it is impossible to tell whether someone who develops malaria does so because of AIDS or because of normal impaired immunity. This definition has inflated the estimated AIDS figures. The danger of the AIDS epidemic is dwarfed by 3.5 million deaths from tuberculosis and 16.8 million deaths from malaria since the beginning of the AIDS epidemic. The frightening scenario looms that widespread, but curable, diseases are wrongly classified as AIDS-related complex, thereby foregoing appropriate treatment.
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PMID:WHO criticised for "inflating" AIDS figures. 1231 62

Improvements in preventive and rehabilitative care have transformed many cases of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) from being an absolute fatal disease to a chronic, expensive illness. As survival rates and life expectancy increase for people with HIV/AIDS, work plays a more central role in improving their quality of life [5]. Persons with HIV/AIDS face numerous physical challenges in maintaining employment. Signs and symptoms of HIV infection and related opportunistic infections include fatigue, muscle weakness, neuropathy and decreased sensation, bowel and bladder incontinence, persistent cough, weight loss, decreased range of motion and coordination, limited endurance, cardiac problems and vision loss. Occupational therapy practitioners must identify the unique impact they can make on a client's quality of life by addressing work-related issues faced by the HIV/AIDS population.
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PMID:HIV/AIDS and work: The implications for occupational therapy. 1244 56

Tuberculosis control depends on successful case finding and treatment of individuals infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Passive case finding is widely practised: the present study aims to ascertain the consensus and possible improvements in active case finding across Europe. Recommendations from national guidelines were collected from 50 countries of the World Health Organization European region using a standard questionnaire. Contacts are universally screened for active tuberculosis and latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI). Most countries (>70%) screen those with HIV infection, prisoners and in-patient contacts. Screening of immigrants is related to their contribution to national rates of tuberculosis. Only 25 (50%) out of 50 advise a request for symptoms in their guidelines. A total of 36 (72%) out of 50 countries recommend sputum examination for those with a persistent cough; 13 countries do not, even if the chest radiograph suggests tuberculosis. Nearly all countries (49 out of 50) use tuberculin skin testing (TST); 27 (54%) out of 50 countries also perform chest radiography irrespective of the TST result. Interpretation of the TST varies widely. All countries use 6-9 months of isoniazid for treatment of LTBI, with an estimated median (range) uptake of 55% (5-92.5%). Symptoms and sputum examination could be used more widely when screening for active tuberculosis. Treatment of latent tuberculosis infection might be better focused by targeted use of interferon-gamma release assays.
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PMID:Active case finding of tuberculosis in Europe: a Tuberculosis Network European Trials Group (TBNET) survey. 1855 Jun 15

Childhood tuberculosis (TB) represents an important part of the disease burden, yet its diagnosis remains challenging. This review summarizes the clinical, radiological, and bacteriological approaches to diagnose TB infection and disease in children. Fever (possibly intermittent or low grade), weight loss or failure to thrive, and a persistent cough for >2 weeks are the most important clinical signs for pulmonary tuberculosis. Extra-pulmonary TB, which might occur in over 40% of the patients, can have in addition some specific clinical symptoms or signs. Chest radiographs provide important information in many patients and advanced imaging can be applied in case of (and should be restricted to) inconclusive diagnosis. The Mantoux test is positive in up to 70% of non-immunocompromised TB patients, whereas HIV co-infection or malnourishment results in a lower reactivity. Evidence of an adult TB index case is clue for diagnosis of childhood TB in low-endemic countries. Bacteriological confirmation remains difficult and is useful for doubtful cases or when drug resistance is suspected.
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PMID:Clinical practice: diagnosis of childhood tuberculosis. 2019 32

A 52-year-old white diabetic male with 4-weeks history of persistent cough followed by headache, drenching night sweats, low-grade fever, worsening photophobia, nausea and vomiting was presented. Examination was significant for photophobia and diminution of vision. His spinal fluid and blood cultures were positive for Cryptococcus neoformans Intravenous fluconazole were given for 2 weeks followed by oral fluconazole. There was significant improvement in systemic and ocular symptoms. HIV serology was negative, but his CD4 counts were low with inverted CD4:CD8 ratio.
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PMID:Disseminated cryptococcosis in HIV negative patient. 2975 35

Improved tuberculosis (TB) prevention and control depend critically on the development of a simple, readily accessible rapid triage test to stratify TB risk. We hypothesized that a blood protein-based host response signature for active TB (ATB) could distinguish it from other TB-like disease (OTD) in adult patients with persistent cough, thereby providing a foundation for a point-of-care (POC) triage test for ATB. Three adult cohorts consisting of ATB suspects were recruited. A bead-based immunoassay and machine learning algorithms identified a panel of four host blood proteins, interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-8, IL-18, and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), that distinguished ATB from OTD. An ultrasensitive POC-amenable single-molecule array (Simoa) panel was configured, and the ATB diagnostic algorithm underwent blind validation in an independent, multinational cohort in which ATB was distinguished from OTD with receiver operator characteristic-area under the curve (ROC-AUC) of 0.80 [95% confidence interval (CI), 0.75 to 0.85], 80% sensitivity (95% CI, 73 to 85%), and 65% specificity (95% CI, 57 to 71%). When host antibodies against TB antigen Ag85B were added to the panel, performance improved to 86% sensitivity and 69% specificity. A blood-based host response panel consisting of four proteins and antibodies to one TB antigen can help to differentiate ATB from other causes of persistent cough in patients with and without HIV infection from Africa, Asia, and South America. Performance characteristics approach World Health Organization (WHO) target product profile accuracy requirements and may provide the foundation for an urgently needed blood-based POC TB triage test.
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PMID:A rapid triage test for active pulmonary tuberculosis in adult patients with persistent cough. 3166 4


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