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We evaluated the effect of chronic renal insufficiency (CRI) and commonly associated co-morbid conditions on the risk of adverse events (stroke, cardiac events, and death) within 30 days after carotid endarterectomy (CEA). Renal function of patients undergoing CEA from 1980 to 1994 was categorized as normal (creatinine < 1.5 mg/dl), mild CRI (creatinine 1.5-2.9 mg/dl), or severe CRI (creatinine > 2.9 mg/dl). Renal function, age, gender, indications for surgery, cardiac disease, chronic preoperative hypertension, diabetes mellitus, smoking history, severe perioperative hypertension or hypotension, intraoperative shunting, and patch closure of the carotid artery were evaluated for their influence on the incidence of adverse events within 30 days after surgery. The timing of postoperative stroke and mechanism of stroke was determined when possible. A total of 237 patients underwent 285 CEAs. No significant differences were found in demographic or clinical characteristics between patients with normal or abnormal renal function. Postoperative stroke and death occurred following three (43%) of seven CEAs in six patients with severe CRI, significantly greater than the 6% incidence of stroke and 1% mortality following 264 CEAs in 221 patients with normal renal function (p < 0.001 and p < 0.001, respectively). Of three patients with severe CRI suffering postoperative stroke, two had severe, difficult to control perioperative hypertension. Two patients with severe CRI who survived 30 days after operation suffered strokes 3 and 4 months postoperatively with one stroke-related death and another death not directly related to the stroke. One patient with severe CRI who survived CEA without stroke was alive 6 months after surgery. The 0% incidence of stroke and death following 14 CEAs in 10 patients with mild CRI was not significantly different from that in patients with normal renal function. Postoperative stroke was not associated with age, gender, history of cardiac disease, chronic preoperative hypertension, diabetes, smoking, or use of intraoperative shunts or patch closure. All three cardiac events occurred in diabetic patients, although they constituted only 26% of operations (p = 0.003). Other clinical characteristics were not associated with the occurrence of cardiac events. Patients with severe CRI are at significantly greater risk than others for postoperative stroke and death following CEA, possibly related to difficulty controlling severe perioperative hypertension. Age, gender, smoking, preoperative hypertension, diabetes, and known cardiac disease are not associated with an increased risk of postoperative stroke in any patient group. CEA can be justified only for carefully selected patients with severe CRI who have symptomatic carotid disease, acceptable operative risk factors, and a good long-term life expectancy. CEA in patients with mild CRI is associated with low risk, and these patients may be treated with the same consideration as patients with normal renal function.
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PMID:Is carotid endarterectomy justified in patients with severe chronic renal insufficiency? 918 64

Black race and the absence of diabetes are associated with higher levels of serum creatinine in patients with end-stage renal disease. We examined whether these factors have a similar influence on creatinine excretion in men with chronic renal insufficiency. The hypotheses were tested in one sample (group A, n = 35) and the findings replicated in a second, independent sample (group B, n = 66). Creatinine excretion normalized to weight (UCr/kg) was compared by race and diabetic status. UCr/kg and creatinine clearance also were compared with the values predicted by the Cockcroft-Gault (CG) formula (based on the regression equation, UCr/kg = 28 - age/5). In each sample, mean UCr/kg was significantly higher in black patients than in nonblack patients (group A, P = 0.004; group B, P = 0.029), and UCr/kg and creatinine clearance were significantly underestimated by the CG predictions in black patients (group A, P < or = 0.004; group B, P < or = 0.019), but not in nonblack patients. Diabetes did not significantly influence UCr/kg. The analysis also was performed at two age levels (< 50 years or > or = 50 years) using groups A and B combined. For black patients younger than 50 (n = 10), observed UCr/kg (P = 0.059) and creatinine clearance (P = 0.025) exceeded the values predicted by the CG formula; the analysis of nonblack patients younger than 50 years was limited by sample size (n = 1). For patients aged 50 years and older (black, n = 32; nonblack, n = 58), mean UCr/kg was significantly higher in black patients (P = 0.034), and UCr/kg and creatinine clearance were significantly underestimated by the CG predictions in black patients (P < or = 0.002) but not in nonblack patients. In multiple regression analysis of all patients aged 50 years and older, UCr/kg was independently influenced by both race (P < 0.05) and age (P < 0.04) (overall model, multiple R = 0.31; P = 0.012). The prediction equation was UCr/kg (mg/kg) = 23.6 - age/8.3 + 1.9 x race (race = 0 if nonblack; race = 1 if black). We conclude that the creatinine excretion rate was strongly affected by race but not diabetes in men with chronic renal insufficiency. The CG formula significantly underestimated UCr/kg and therefore creatinine clearance in black patients. These findings may reflect differences between black and nonblack subjects in body composition, muscle metabolism, or diet, and the interaction of these factors with chronic renal insufficiency.
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PMID:Race and creatinine excretion in chronic renal insufficiency. 921 96

Women and minorities were underrepresented in trials demonstrating carotid endarterectomy (CEA) is superior to medical treatment for significant carotid stenosis. These trials also revealed that the benefit of CEA is largely determined by the incidence of operative complications. Our series of 429 CEAs reflects a more diverse population (41% women, 24% blacks). We questioned if outcome was related to race, gender or other factors. Stroke occurred after 4.9 per cent of operations, cardiac events after 3 per cent, and death after 2 per cent. No factors correlated with cardiac events. Diabetes, smoking, neurologic symptoms, shunting, and patch closure did not correlate with complications. Chronic renal insufficiency (CRI), emergent operation, and operation by neurosurgeons correlated with stroke. Black females (BF) had significantly more strokes than did others (16% versus 3%). More BF had CRI, but their higher complication rate persisted when CRI patients were excluded. More BF were hypertensive (98% versus 74%), but hypertension did not correlate with complications. However, severe acute perioperative hypertension was common in BF experiencing complications and may be related to the differences observed. These findings highlight the need for better understanding of racial and gender outcome differences after CEA in order to improve risks and allow modification of selection criteria for high risk groups.
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PMID:Racial and gender differences in outcome after carotid endarterectomy. 961 73

Chronic renal insufficiency ultimately culminating in end-stage renal disease requiring dialysis or transplantation is a major health problem in the United States. The first task confronting the physician caring for a patient with renal disease is to decide whether the renal insufficiency is acute or chronic. The initial differential diagnostic approach to chronic renal insufficiency consists of determining whether the patient has glomerular disease or interstitial or vascular disease on the basis of a careful history taking, urinalysis, and measurement of 24-hour protein excretion. Further refinement of diagnostic considerations often requires serologic studies, renal biopsy, or imaging the urinary tract with ultrasonography or computed tomography. Management considerations begin with the identification and correction of any acute reversible causes of renal insufficiency in patients with chronic renal disease. Recent studies have shown that effective antihypertensive therapy, especially with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, restriction of dietary protein, and excellent glycemic control in patients with diabetes, can retard the progression of chronic renal disease. Once these therapeutic strategies are in place, it is important to anticipate and treat the multiple manifestations of chronic progressive renal insufficiency: fluid overload, hyperkalemia, metabolic acidosis, abnormalities of calcium, phosphorus, and vitamin D metabolism, and anemia.
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PMID:Chronic renal insufficiency: a diagnostic and therapeutic approach. 1021 59

Mediacalcinosis (MC) represents a disease of the muscular type arteries characterized by progredient calcification of the media. MC involves most frequently the arteries of the lower extremities. However, a more extensive disease involving the arteries of the pelvis and the abdominal aorta is common. A systemic extension of MC with the involvement of the coronary arteries has been reported, but is however, according to the present opinion, rather rare. MC occurs isolated (primary MC) as well as associated with other diseases (secondary MC). The secondary forms are most frequently due to diabetes mellitus type II and to chronic renal insufficiency and accompanying secondary hyperparathyroidism. The etiopathogenesis of MC has not yet been clarified. The recent evidence based on molecular-biologic investigations suggests an active pathomechanism of an ectopic arterial wall ossification. Genetic predisposition appears possible. The diagnosis of MC is traditionally established by conventional x-ray radiography of the pelvis-lower extremity-region. Among the newer imaging modalities, the computed tomography and the high resolution B-mode ultrasonography are of special importance. The diagnostics of coronary calcification are in descending order of importance relevant the intracoronary ultrasonography (IVUS), the electron beam computed tomography (EBT), the thorax-fluoroscopy and the thorax-radiography. For the diagnosis of coronary MC necessary arterial wall layer specific calcium detection is currently possible only with the IVUS methodology. The prognosis of the primary MC is quoad vitam good. However, the mechanic and biological effects of MC on cardiacal and vascular function have not yet been determined. The secondary MC in type II diabetics represents an independent cardiovascular risk factor. A causal therapy of MC is not known. For the clinical cardiologists, MC is of primary interest as a differential diagnosis to atherosclerosis. For the scientists, MC offers an excellent in vivo model to study processes associated with arterial wall ossifications and ageing.
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PMID:[Media calcinosis from the viewpoint of the cardiologist]. 1002 65

Penetrating aortic ulcers (PAU) result from progressive erosion of atheromatose plaques perforating the internal elastic lamina. PAU is considered both a predisposing condition and differential diagnosis of classic aortic dissection; 93 cases of PAU are documented in the world literature, 60% of which are male over 60 years old. Systemic hypertension was prevalent in 85%, history of smoking in 72%, hyperlipoproteinemia in 35%, and diabetes mellitus in 31%. In 61%, PAU was associated with coronary artery disease, in 53% with abdominal or thoracic aortic aneurysm, in 31% with chronic renal insufficiency, in 17% with peripheral artery disease, and in 12% with a history of cerebrovascular accidents. In 73%, PAU was associated with formation of medial hematoma and in 16% with a thick, calcified intimal flap of less than 10 cm extent. Angiography, computed tomography, magnetic resonance imaging and transesophageal echocardiography were used in 66, 64, 23 and 14%, respectively, for diagnosing PAU; sensitivities for demonstrating PAU were 83, 65, 86 and 61%, respectively. Chest or back pain was found in 76% and an acute onset of symptoms in 68%. Signs of mediastinal widening were found in 59%, neurologic signs comprising hoarseness, syncope or coma in 8%, pulse differentials caused by embolism in 4%, aortic regurgitation in 7%, and mediastinal hematoma, pleural- or pericardial effusion in 42, 27 and 10%, respectively. PAU of the ascending aorta or aortic arch (type A) leads to dissection and rupture in 57%, compared to 12% and 5%, respectively, in the descending aorta (type B); 57% of medically managed type A PAU patients died within 30 d of hospital admission compared to only 14% of type B PAU with 20 cases of uncomplicated long-term outcome without surgery. Thus, similar to the Stanford classification for aortic dissection, type A PAU should primarily be considered for surgical management, whereas type B PAU without signs of instability may be managed medically.
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PMID:[Ulcer of the thoracic aorta: diagnosis, therapy and prognosis]. 1002 64

Essential hypertension and congestive heart failure (CHF) are examples of cardiovascular disorders that may cause renal failure, although sometimes a primary kidney defect may lead to hypertension. Renal damage in malignant and severe hypertension is dramatic, extensive, and rapidly progressive, although nephrosclerotic damage, which develops slowly and appears late in hypertension, is a rare cause of morbidity because mild to moderate hypertension is now the most common form. However, the incidence of end-stage renal failure associated with hypertension is markedly increasing, perhaps because of underdiagnosis of renal damage in hypertension, insufficient lowering of blood pressure in clinical practice, or inability of antihypertensive drugs to lower blood pressure sufficiently to preserve the kidney, a goal that may need specific drugs that act, for example, on the renin-angiotensin system (RAS). Renal vasoconstriction and reduction of renal blood flow are early companions of cardiac insufficiency and may be involved in the development of sodium and water retention. Profound reduction of cardiac output and arterial hypotension in severe CHF may lead to acute renal failure. Chronic renal insufficiency is associated with elevated cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Renal impairment is often caused by a disease process, such as diabetes mellitus, that involves both the cardiovascular system and the kidney. When the primary disease is renal, possible reasons for an association include renal-dependent increase in blood pressure, activation of the RAS, overproduction of other vasoactive substances of renal origin, and electrolyte imbalances leading to fatal arrhythmias.
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PMID:Cardiovascular disease and the kidney: an epidemiologic overview. 1002 46

At the beginning of this century, the diagnosis of various renal diseases was made with relative accuracy although neither plasma markers of glomerular filtration nor renal biopsy nor imaging were available. Renal edema was identified by high albuminuria, hyalin cylinders, high urine density and oliguria. Renal hematuria was detected by cylinders of erythrocytes. Hallmarks of chronic renal insufficiency, recognized at autopsy by atrophic kidneys, were hyposthenuria, polyuria and slight albuminuria without edema associated with arterial hypertension, anemia, retinopathy and left ventricular hypertrophy. The detection of increased plasma volume in experimental toxic nephritis by St. Moscati proposed the underlying mechanism of arterial hypertension. Experimental and clinical research in the preinsulin era indicated the central role of the kidney in the functional alterations induced by diabetes. Indeed, glucosuria was known to appear only when glycemia was relatively high. The kidney appeared enlarged and hyperemic, i.e. the so-called glomerular hyperfiltration. Glucosuria was directly correlated with diuresis but it markedly decreased in renal insufficiency. In diabetes complicated by nephropathy, tolerance to carbohydrates improved. Correction of glucosuria by dietary treatment was followed by a prompt rise in body weight, due to retention that counterbalanced the previous losses. Diabetic ketoacidosis, determined by the measurement of urinary ketonic body excretion, was treated with sodium bicarbonate (30-50 g/day in severe acidosis) up to achieving an alkaline urine pH. It was known that high doses of sodium bicarbonate might induce edema which gradually disappeared with a reduction in the alkaline administration. Clinical significance of sodium balance was, in fact, recognized: the external NaCl balance between alimentary ingestion and urinary excretion was neutral in normal conditions and became positive at high body temperature or negative during reabsorption of exudates.
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PMID:Diagnosis of renal disease at the beginning of the 20th century. 1021 38

Hyperkalaemia is a frequent electrolyte disturbance connected with new knowledge and practical routine. It is developed by the disorders of the "external balance" (potassium [K] intake and output) as well as the "internal balance" (distribution of K in the extracellular and intracellular fluid compartments). Factors playing a role in it are: the upright posture, physical activity and hyperosmolality. In the hormonal regulation of K metabolism first of all beta adrenergic agents, insulin and aldosterone have significance; the first two mainly in the internal balance. Hyperkalaemia is occurring especially frequently in renal patients (in acute and chronic renal insufficiency, in dialyzed persons) in patients with diabetes, in adrenal insufficiency (Addison's disease, in selective hypoaldosteronisms and in pseudohypoaldosteronisms) in renal tubular acidosis as well as in response to various drugs (ACE inhibitors, angiotensin receptor antagonists, beta blocking agents, potassium sparing diuretics, NSAID's, anticoagulants etc.). Interactions between illness and drugs as well as between drugs and hormones may have outstanding importance in the development of hyperkalaemia. Physical activity carried out in the upright posture in the presence of hyperosmolality (water restriction together with salt or/and glucose loading) developing in pharmacological hypoaldosteronism accompanied with insulin deficiency, may be especially dangerous with respect to hyperkalaemia. To avoid life-threatening hyperkalaemia it is necessary 1. to stop cardiotoxicity with calcium; 2. to enhance K uptake by the cells by bicarbonate, insulin and beta adrenergic agents; and 3. to remove abnormal quantities of K from the body by enemas and/or ion exchange resins. The quickest and best way of treatment of hyperkalaemia is haemodialysis.
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PMID:[Hyperkalemias]. 1061 44

Indications for renal biopsy are still ill defined. We recently sent a detailed questionnaire to 360 nephrologists in different areas of the world with the aim of providing information on this critical issue by evaluating the replies. The questionnaire was organized in four sections that included questions on renal biopsy indications in patients with normal renal function, renal insufficiency, and a transplanted kidney. In addition, the questions included methods applied to each renal biopsy procedure and to specimen processing. We received 166 replies; North Europe (50 replies), South Europe (47 replies), North America (31 replies), Australia and New Zealand (24 replies), and other countries (14 replies). In patients with normal renal function, primary indications for renal biopsy were microhematuria associated with proteinuria, particularly greater than 1 g/d of protein. In chronic renal insufficiency, kidney dimension was the major parameter considered before renal biopsy, whereas the presence of diabetes or serological abnormalities was not considered critical. In the course of acute renal failure (ARF) of unknown origin, 20% of the respondents would perform renal biopsy in the early stages, 26% after 1 week of nonrecovery, and 40% after 4 weeks. In a transplanted kidney, the majority of nephrologists would perform a renal biopsy in the case of graft failure after surgery, ARF after initial good function, slow progressive deterioration of renal function, and onset of nephrotic proteinuria. The last section provided comprehensive information on the technical aspects of renal biopsy. This survey represents the first attempt to provide a reliable consensus that can be used in developing guidelines on the use of kidney biopsy.
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PMID:Current indications for renal biopsy: a questionnaire-based survey. 1069 70


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