Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound
Pivot Concepts: Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound   Target Concepts: Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound

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Query: EC:6.3.2.3 (glutathione synthetase)
678 document(s) hit in 31,850,051 MEDLINE articles (0.00 seconds)

It is well known that intracellular antioxidant glutathione (GSH) plays major roles in the maintenance of redox status and defense of oxidative stress. Ras, a small GTP-binding protein, may send growth-stimulating message to the nucleus through downstream Rac oncoprotein and superoxide (O(2*-)). These findings led us to investigate the effects of GSH and melatonin, a free-radical scavenger, on Ras-Rac-O(2*-)-related growth signal transduction. Our results demonstrate that overexpression of the inducible Ha-ras oncogene by isopropyl-beta-D-thiogalactoside (IPTG) increases the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS, including O(2*-) and hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2))) and GSH in an Ha-ras-transformed NIH/3T3 fibroblast cell line. On the contrary, melatonin significantly suppresses ras-triggered cell growth by inhibiting the increase of ROS and GSH. Moreover, severe apoptosis of this transformed cell line occurred when the cell redox balance between ROS and GSH was dramatically changed in the presence of IPTG and L-buthionine-[S,R]-sulfoximine (BSO, a specific inhibitor of GSH synthetase). That BSO-induced cell apoptosis needs Ras to increase the ROS level was demonstrated by the free-radical scavenger melatonin. It effectively blocked cell apoptosis, but cell growth was also slowed without affecting Ras expression. Based on our studies, two approaches can be applied to treating ras-related cancers. One is utilizing melatonin to suppress cancer cell proliferation, and the other is utilizing BSO to induce cancer-cell apoptosis. Cotreatment of ras-related cancer cells with melatonin and BSO stops cell growth as well as apoptosis. Whether these cancer cells will undergo further regression or become recurrent merits investigation.
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PMID:Glutathione depletion-induced apoptosis of Ha-ras-transformed NIH3T3 cells can be prevented by melatonin. 1261 60

The inter-relation between nitrogen availability and cadmium toxicity was studied in roots of barley seedlings with emphasis on the analysis of expression of 10 selected genes relevant for growth in the presence of toxic Cd concentrations. The response to Cd exposure differed quantitatively or qualitatively for the 10 genes in dependence of the N supply. Transcripts of glutathione synthase, glutathione reductase, glutathione peroxidase and dehydroascorbate reductase were measured as parameters involved in antioxidant defence, metallothionein, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase and phytochelatin synthase (PCS) were analysed as genes related to heavy metal binding, and vacuolar ATPase subunits VHA-E and VHA-c and a NRAMP-transporter as genes being implicated in Cd transport. Reprogramming of the Cd response was most obvious for PCS and NRAMP whose transcript levels were unaltered and down-regulated, respectively, in the presence of Cd at adequate N, but strongly up-regulated upon Cd exposure under conditions of nitrogen deficiency. Different responses to Cd at varying N supply were also seen for the antioxidant genes. The results on gene expression are discussed in context with the changes in biochemical parameters, and underline the importance of evaluating the general growth conditions of a plant when discussing its specific response to a stressor such as Cd. The sequence of the nramp cDNA was filed at the EMBL/GenBank/DDBJ Databases under the accession number AJ514946.
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PMID:Alterations in Cd-induced gene expression under nitrogen deficiency in Hordeum vulgare. 1280 10

Although it is well documented that the concentration of glutathione (GSH), the most abundant intracellular free thiol and an important antioxidant, declines with age in many tissues of different animal species, the underlying mechanism is not well understood. In a previous study, we showed that the expression of the glutamate cysteine ligase genes was down-regulated with age, accompanied by a decline in GSH content in the liver, kidney, and lung of Fisher 344 rats. The aim of this study was to examine the age-associated changes in the activities of three other enzymes, which also play important roles in GSH biosynthesis, to further explore the mechanism underlying the age-associated decline in GSH content in Fisher 344 rats. The results showed for the first time that the activity and gene expression of glutathione synthase, which catalyzes the second reaction in de novo GSH synthesis, were also decreased with increased age in the lung and kidney, but not in the liver or heart. No age-associated change in the activity of either gamma-glutamyltranspeptidase or glutathione reductase was observed in any of the organs examined. The results further indicate that decreased GSH synthetic capacity is responsible for the age-associated decline in GSH content in Fisher 344 rats.
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PMID:Decreased synthetic capacity underlies the age-associated decline in glutathione content in Fisher 344 rats. 1458 Mar 7

Saccharomyces cerevisiae is an outstanding cellular model for metabolic studies in glycation. Due to its high glycolytic activity, it produces methylglyoxal, a highly reactive intracellular glycation agent, at a rate of approx. 0.1% of the glycolytic flux. We investigated methylglyoxal metabolism in Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells, using haploid null mutants. Growth studies showed that the most sensitive strains to 2-oxoaldehydes were the null mutants for GSH1 and GLO1, coding for glutathione synthase I and glyoxalase I respectively. The GRE3 null mutant, lacking aldose reductase activity, is as sensitive as the control strain. Kinetic modelling and computer simulation of this type of experiment were also performed, and we concluded that the most important parameters for controlling the intracellular concentration of methylglyoxal are the activity of glyoxalase I and the GSH concentration. Moreover, our model predicts an intracellular steady-state concentration of methylglyoxal of approx. 2 microM. Our results show that the glyoxalase pathway is the main detoxification pathway for 2-oxoaldehydes in yeast, and is likely to be the key enzymatic anti-glycation agent in these cells.
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PMID:Anti-glycation defences in yeast. 1464 Oct 76

Oxidative stress is a major contributing factor in neurodegeneration and can arise from dietary, environmental, and genetic sources. Here we examine the separate and combined impact of deprivation of folate and vitamin E, coupled with dietary iron as a prooxidant, on normal mice and transgenic mice lacking apolipoprotein E (ApoE-/- mice). Both mouse strains exhibited increased levels of glutathione when deprived of folate and vitamin E, but a substantial further increase was observed in ApoE-/- mice. To determine the mechanism(s) underlying this increase, we quantified transcription and activity of glutathione synthase (GS). Both normal and ApoE-/- mice demonstrated increased GS activity when deprived of folate and vitamin E. However, transcription was increased only in ApoE-/- mice deprived of folate and vitamin E. These findings demonstrate that deficiency in one gene can result in compensatory up-regulation in a second relevant gene and, furthermore, indicate that compensation for oxidative stress can occur in brain tissue at epigenetic and genetic levels depending on the nature and/or extent of oxidative stress.
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PMID:Increased transcription and activity of glutathione synthase in response to deficiencies in folate, vitamin E, and apolipoprotein E. 1474 34

Glutathione (gamma-glutamyl-cysteinyl-glycine; GSH) is the most abundant low-molecular-weight thiol, and GSH/glutathione disulfide is the major redox couple in animal cells. The synthesis of GSH from glutamate, cysteine, and glycine is catalyzed sequentially by two cytosolic enzymes, gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase and GSH synthetase. Compelling evidence shows that GSH synthesis is regulated primarily by gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase activity, cysteine availability, and GSH feedback inhibition. Animal and human studies demonstrate that adequate protein nutrition is crucial for the maintenance of GSH homeostasis. In addition, enteral or parenteral cystine, methionine, N-acetyl-cysteine, and L-2-oxothiazolidine-4-carboxylate are effective precursors of cysteine for tissue GSH synthesis. Glutathione plays important roles in antioxidant defense, nutrient metabolism, and regulation of cellular events (including gene expression, DNA and protein synthesis, cell proliferation and apoptosis, signal transduction, cytokine production and immune response, and protein glutathionylation). Glutathione deficiency contributes to oxidative stress, which plays a key role in aging and the pathogenesis of many diseases (including kwashiorkor, seizure, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, liver disease, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, HIV, AIDS, cancer, heart attack, stroke, and diabetes). New knowledge of the nutritional regulation of GSH metabolism is critical for the development of effective strategies to improve health and to treat these diseases.
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PMID:Glutathione metabolism and its implications for health. 1498 35

Inorganic arsenicals are clearly toxicants and carcinogens in humans. In mammals, including humans, inorganic arsenic often undergoes methylation, forming compounds such as monomethylarsonic acid (MMAs(V)) and dimethylarsinic acid (DMAs(V)). However, much less information is available on the in vitro toxic potential or mechanisms of these methylated arsenicals, especially MMAs(V). We studied the molecular mechanisms of in vitro cytolethality of MMAs(V) using a rat liver epithelial cell line (TRL 1215). MMAs(V) was not cytotoxic in TRL 1215 cells even at concentrations exceeding 10 mM, but it became weakly cytotoxic and induced both necrotic and apoptotic cell death when cellular reduced glutathione (GSH) was depleted with the glutathione synthase inhibitor, l-buthionine-[S,R]-sulfoximine (BSO), or the glutathione reductase inhibitor, carmustine. Similar results were observed in the other mammalian cells, such as human skin TIG-112 cells, chimpanzee skin CRT-1609 cells, and mouse metallothionein (MT) positive and MT negative embryonic cells. Ethacrynic acid (EA), an inhibitor of glutathione S-transferase (GST) that catalyses GSH-substrate conjugation, also enhanced the cytolethality of MMAs(V), but aminooxyacetic acid (AOAA), an inhibitor of beta-lyase that catalyses the final breakdown of GSH-substrate conjugates, had no effect. Both the cellular GSH levels and the cellular GST activity were increased by the exposure to MMAs(V) in TRL 1215 cells. On the other hand, the addition of exogenous extracellular GSH enhanced the cytolethality of MMAs(V), although cellular GSH levels actually prevented the cytolethality of combined MMAs(V) and exogenous GSH. These findings indicate that human arsenic metabolite MMAs(V) is not a highly toxic compound in mammalian cells, and the level of cellular GSH is critical to its eventual toxic effects.
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PMID:Cellular glutathione prevents cytolethality of monomethylarsonic acid. 1499 80

The concentration of glutathione (GSH), the most abundant intracellular nonprotein thiol and important antioxidant, declines with age and in some age-related diseases. The underlying mechanism, however, is not clear. The previous studies from our laboratory showed that the age-dependent decline in GSH content in Fisher 344 rats was associated with a downregulation of glutamate cysteine ligase (GCL), the rate-limiting enzyme in de novo GSH synthesis. Our recent studies further indicated that the activity and mRNA content of glutathione synthase (GS), which catalyzes the second reaction in de novo GSH synthesis, were also decreased with age in some tissues. No age-associated change was observed in glutathione reductase or gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase activities. Also, although GSH content declined with age in both male and female mice, male mice experienced more dramatic age-associated decline in many tissues/organs than female mice. Furthermore, we found that GSH content was significantly decreased in the red blood cells from male Alzheimer disease patients, which was associated with decreases in GCL and GS activities. Finally, we showed that estrogen increased GSH content, GS and GR activities, and GCL gene expression in the liver of both male and female mice. Taken together, our results suggest that (1) GCL plays a critical role in maintaining GSH homeostasis under both physiological and pathological conditions; (2) decreased GSH content may be involved in AD pathology in humans; and (3) estrogen increases GSH content in mice by multiple mechanisms.
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PMID:Glutathione metabolism during aging and in Alzheimer disease. 1524 41

Inorganic arsenicals are clearly toxicants and carcinogens in humans. In mammals, including humans, inorganic arsenicals often undergo methylation, forming compounds such as dimethylarsinic acid (DMAs(V)). Recent evidence indicates that DMAs(V) is a complete carcinogen in rodents although evidence for inorganic arsenicals as carcinogens in rodents remains equivocal. Thus, we studied the molecular mechanisms of in vitro cytolethality of DMAs(V) using a rat liver epithelial cell line (TRL 1215). DMAs(V) selectively induced apoptosis in TRL 1215 cells; its LC(50) value after 48 h exposure was 4.5 mM. The addition of a glutathione synthase inhibitor, L-buthionine-[S,R]-sulfoximine (BSO), actually decreased DMAs(V)-induced apoptosis. DMAs(V) exposure temporarily decreased cellular reduced glutathione (GSH) levels and enhanced cellular glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity from 6 h after the exposure when the cells were still alive. Also, DMAs(V) exposure activated cellular caspase 3 activity with a peak at 18 h after the exposure when apoptosis began, and BSO treatment completely inhibited this enzyme activity. The additions of inhibitors of caspase 3, caspase 8, and caspase 9 significantly reduced DMAs(V)-induced apoptosis. Taken together, these data indicate that cellular GSH was required for DMAs(V)-induced apoptosis to occur, and activation of cellular caspases after conjugation of DMAs(V) with cellular GSH appears to be of mechanistic significance. Further research will be required to determine the role of intracellular GSH and methylation in the toxicity of arsenicals in chronic arsenic poisoning or in cases where arsenicals are used as chemotherapeutics.
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PMID:Role of glutathione in dimethylarsinic acid-induced apoptosis. 1527 15

Skeletal muscle differentation is a complex process regulated at multiple levels. This study addressed the effect of glutathione (GSH) depletion on the transition of murine skeletal muscle C2C12 myoblasts into myocytes induced by growth factor inactivation. Cellular GSH levels increased within 24 hours on myogenic stimulation of myoblasts due to enhanced GSH synthetic rate accounted for by stimulated glutamate-L-cysteine ligase (also known as gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase) activity. In contrast, the synthesis rate of GSH using gamma-glutamylcysteine and glutamate as precursors, which reflects the activity of the GSH synthetase, did not change during differentiation. The stimulation of GSH stores preceded the myogenic differentiation of C2C12 myoblasts monitored by expression of muscle-specific genes, creatine kinase (CK), myosin heavy chain (MyHC), and MyoD. The pattern of DNA binding activity of NF-kappaB and AP-1 in differentiating cells was similar both displaying an activation peak at 24 hours after myogenic stimulation. Depletion of cellular GSH levels 24 hours after stimulation of differentiation abrogated myogenesis as reflected by lower CK activity, MyHC levels, MyoD expression, and myotubes formation, effects that were reversible on GSH replenishment by GSH ethyl ester (GHSEE). Moreover, GSH depletion led to sustained activation of NF-kappaB, while GSHEE prevented it. Furthermore, inhibition of NF-kappaB activation restored myogenesis despite GSH depletion. Thus, GSH contributes to the formation of myotubes from satellite myoblasts by ensuring inactivation of NF-kappaB, and hence maintaining optimal GSH levels may be beneficial in restoring muscle mass in chronic inflammatory disorders.
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PMID:Glutathione depletion impairs myogenic differentiation of murine skeletal muscle C2C12 cells through sustained NF-kappaB activation. 1533 97


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