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Query: EC:6.2.1.1 (ACS)
 78,556 document(s) hit in 31,850,051 MEDLINE articles (0.00 seconds)

Acyl-coenzyme A (CoA) synthetases (ACSs, EC 6.2.1.3) catalyze the formation of fatty acyl-CoAs from free fatty acid, ATP, and CoA. Essentially all de novo fatty acid synthesis occurs in the plastid. Fatty acids destined for membrane glycerolipid and triacylglycerol synthesis in the endoplasmic reticulum must be first activated to acyl-CoAs via an ACS. Within a family of nine ACS genes from Arabidopsis, we identified a chloroplast isoform, LACS9. LACS9 is highly expressed in developing seeds and young rosette leaves. Both in vitro chloroplast import assays and transient expression of a green fluorescent protein fusion indicated that the LACS9 protein is localized in the plastid envelope. A T-DNA knockout mutant (lacs9-1) was identified by reverse genetics and these mutant plants were indistinguishable from wild type in growth and appearance. Analysis of leaf lipids provided no evidence for compromised export of acyl groups from chloroplasts. However, direct assays demonstrated that lacs9-1 plants contained only 10% of the chloroplast long-chain ACS activity found for wild type. The residual long-chain ACS activity in mutant chloroplasts was comparable with calculated rates of fatty acid synthesis. Although another isozyme contributes to the activation of fatty acids during their export from the chloroplast, LACS9 is a major chloroplast ACS.
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PMID:Fatty acid export from the chloroplast. Molecular characterization of a major plastidial acyl-coenzyme A synthetase from Arabidopsis. 1217 83

The acsABCDE genes in the Clostridium thermoaceticum genome are used for autotrophic acetyl-CoA synthesis using the Wood-Ljungdahl pathway. A 2.8-kb region between acsC and acsD was cloned and sequenced. Two open reading frames, orf7 (approximately 1.9 kb) and acsF (approximately 0.7 kb) were identified. orf7 appears to encode an Fe-S protein, in that it contains five conserved cysteine residues, three of which are present in a motif (CGGXXXCGXC) commonly used to coordinate Fe-S clusters. However, Orf7 is probably not involved in autotrophic acetyl-CoA synthesis, as homologous genes are present in organisms that do not utilize this pathway and are absent in many that do. In contrast, acsF is probably involved in this pathway. Sequence alignment of AcsF and eleven homologs reveals a number of conserved regions, including a P-loop that binds nucleoside triphosphates and catalyzes their hydrolysis. One homolog is CooC, an ATPase/GTPase that inserts Ni into a precursor form of the C-cluster of the carbon monoxide dehydrogenase (CODH) from Rhodospirillum rubrum. Purified AcsF lacked Ni and Fe, and slowly catalyzed the hydrolysis of ATP. Such similarities to CooC suggest that AcsF may function to insert Ni into a Ni-deficient form of the bifunctional acetyl-CoA synthase/CODH from C. thermoaceticum (ACS(Ct)). However, this could not be established, as expression of acsF did not effect activation of recombinant AcsAB expressed in E. coli. Also, E. coli cells defective in hypB retained the ability to synthesize active recombinant AcsAB. Rather, the concentration of extracellular Ni(2+) ions was critical to activation.
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PMID:Identification and preliminary characterization of AcsF, a putative Ni-insertase used in the biosynthesis of acetyl-CoA synthase from Clostridium thermoaceticum. 1253 50

Acetyl-coenzyme A synthetase catalyzes the two-step synthesis of acetyl-CoA from acetate, ATP, and CoA and belongs to a family of adenylate-forming enzymes that generate an acyl-AMP intermediate. This family includes other acyl- and aryl-CoA synthetases, firefly luciferase, and the adenylation domains of the modular nonribosomal peptide synthetases. We have determined the X-ray crystal structure of acetyl-CoA synthetase complexed with adenosine-5'-propylphosphate and CoA. The structure identifies the CoA binding pocket as well as a new conformation for members of this enzyme family in which the approximately 110-residue C-terminal domain exhibits a large rotation compared to structures of peptide synthetase adenylation domains. This domain movement presents a new set of residues to the active site and removes a conserved lysine residue that was previously shown to be important for catalysis of the adenylation half-reaction. Comparison of our structure with kinetic and structural data of closely related enzymes suggests that the members of the adenylate-forming family of enzymes may adopt two different orientations to catalyze the two half-reactions. Additionally, we provide a structural explanation for the recently shown control of enzyme activity by acetylation of an active site lysine.
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PMID:The 1.75 A crystal structure of acetyl-CoA synthetase bound to adenosine-5'-propylphosphate and coenzyme A. 1262 52

Fatty acids are utilized as a cellular energy source. In the present study, we investigated whether fatty acids could affect axoplasmic transport. Cultured mouse superior cervical ganglion neurons were placed in the glucose-containing medium (145 mM NaCl, 5 mM KCl, 1 mM CaCl(2), 1 mM MgCl(2), 5 mM D-glucose, 10 mM Hepes, pH 7.3, 37 degrees C), and axoplasmic transport of particles in neurites was observed under video-enhanced contrast microscopy. A variety of fatty acids (acetate (C2), caproate (C6), caprylate (C8), caprate (C10), 2-decenoate (C10:1), arachidonate (C20:4); 0.1-1 mM) caused a transient increase in the amount of particles transported in both anterograde and retrograde directions. The increasing effects of fatty acids were dose-dependent. A half-maximum effective dose (ED(50)) for acetate was 0.8 mM, which is similar to the reported K(m) value of acetyl-CoA synthetase for acetate. The ED(50) for caprylate was 28 microM, which is near the K(m) value of acyl-CoA synthetase for medium- and long-chain fatty acids. Application of 5 mM malonate, an inhibitor of the citrate cycle, induced a steady-state decrease in axoplasmic transport, indicating that energy derived from the citrate cycle is required for the maintenance of axoplasmic transport. The increasing effect of acetate (1 mM) on axoplasmic transport was completely abolished by pretreatment with malonate (5 mM), suggesting that acetate produces ATP for axoplasmic transport via the citrate cycle. Alternatively, the effect of caprate (1 mM) was retained after treatment with malonate. Thus, fatty acids except acetate produce ATP probably through both the beta-oxidation pathway and the citrate cycle, increasing axoplasmic transport. Since the effect of fatty acids was transient, certain negative feedback mechanisms might be involved. The removal of glucose from the medium resulted in a low steady-state level of axoplasmic transport. Under such condition, the acetate (1 mM)-induced transient increase in axoplasmic transport remained. Since intracellular ATP must be low under glucose-free condition, intracellular ATP concentrations are unlikely to be involved in the feedback system. Instead, acetyl-CoA or its downstream products in the citrate cycle might lead to feedback inhibition. Application of citrate (5 mM) caused a strong decrease following a transient increase in axoplasmic transport, whereas no other acetyl-CoA product decreased axoplasmic transport. Thus, excessive citrate may be one of factors leading to feedback inhibition of metabolic pathways to arrest and reverse the increase in axoplasmic transport induced by fatty acids.
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PMID:Fatty acids as an energy source for the operation of axoplasmic transport. 1271 Oct 76

Acyl-activating enzymes are a diverse group of proteins that catalyze the activation of many different carboxylic acids, primarily through the formation of a thioester bond. This group of enzymes is found in all living organisms and includes the acyl-coenzyme A synthetases, 4-coumarate:coenzyme A ligases, luciferases, and non-ribosomal peptide synthetases. The members of this superfamily share little overall sequence identity, but do contain a 12-amino acid motif common to all enzymes that activate their acid substrates using ATP via an enzyme-bound adenylate intermediate. Arabidopsis possesses an acyl-activating enzyme superfamily containing 63 different genes. In addition to the genes that had been characterized previously, 14 new cDNA clones were isolated as part of this work. The protein sequences were compared phylogenetically and grouped into seven distinct categories. At least four of these categories are plant specific. The tissue-specific expression profiles of some of the genes of unknown function were analyzed and shown to be complex, with a high degree of overlap. Most of the plant-specific genes represent uncharacterized aspects of carboxylic acid metabolism. One such group contains members whose enzymes activate short- and medium-chain fatty acids. Altogether, the results presented here describe the largest acyl-activating enzyme family present in any organism thus far studied at the genomic level and clearly indicate that carboxylic acid activation metabolism in plants is much more complex than previously thought.
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PMID:Arabidopsis contains a large superfamily of acyl-activating enzymes. Phylogenetic and biochemical analysis reveals a new class of acyl-coenzyme a synthetases. 1280 34

The aim of this work was to understand the steps controlling the process of biotransformation of trimethylamonium compounds into L(-)-carnitine by Escherichia coli and the link between the central carbon or primary and the secondary metabolism expressed. Thus, the enzyme activities involved in the biotransformation process of crotonobetaine into L(-)-carnitine (crotonobetaine hydration reaction and crotonobetaine reduction reaction), in the synthesis of acetyl-CoA (pyruvate dehydrogenase, acetyl-CoA synthetase, and ATP:acetate phosphotransferase) and in the distribution of metabolites for the tricarboxylic acid (isocitrate dehydrogenase) and glyoxylate (isocitrate lyase) cycles, were followed in batch with both growing and resting cells and during continuous cell growth in stirred-tank and high-cell-density membrane reactors. In addition, the levels of carnitine, crotonobetaine, gamma-butyrobetaine, ATP, NADH/NAD(+), and acetyl-CoA/CoA ratios were measured to determine how metabolic fluxes were distributed in the catabolic system. The results provide the first experimental evidence demonstrating the important role of the glyoxylate shunt during biotransformation of resting cells and the need for high levels of ATP to maintain metabolite transport and biotransformation (2.1 to 16.0 mmol L cellular/mmol ATP L reactor h). Moreover, the results obtained for the pool of acetyl-CoA/CoA indicate that it also correlated with the biotransformation process. The main metabolic pathway operating during cell growth in the high cell-density membrane reactor was that related to isocitrate dehydrogenase (during start-up) and isocitrate lyase (during steady-state operation), together with phosphotransacetylase and acetyl-CoA synthetase. More importantly, the link between central carbon and L(-)-carnitine metabolism at the level of the ATP pool was also confirmed.
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PMID:Link between primary and secondary metabolism in the biotransformation of trimethylammonium compounds by escherichia coli. 1459 81

Fungal ammonia fermentation is a novel dissimilatory metabolic mechanism that supplies energy under anoxic conditions. The fungus Fusarium oxysporum reduces nitrate to ammonium and simultaneously oxidizes ethanol to acetate to generate ATP (Zhou, Z., Takaya, N., Nakamura, A., Yamaguchi, M., Takeo, K., and Shoun, H. (2002) J. Biol. Chem. 277, 1892-1896). We identified the Aspergillus nidulans genes involved in ammonia fermentation by analyzing fungal mutants. The results showed that assimilatory nitrate and nitrite reductases (the gene products of niaD and niiA) were essential for reducing nitrate and for anaerobic cell growth during ammonia fermentation. We also found that ethanol oxidation is coupled with nitrate reduction and catalyzed by alcohol dehydrogenase, coenzyme A (CoA)-acylating aldehyde dehydrogenase, and acetyl-CoA synthetase (Acs). This is similar to the mechanism suggested in F. oxysporum except A. nidulans uses Acs to produce ATP instead of the ADP-dependent acetate kinase of F. oxysporum. The production of Acs requires a functional facA gene that encodes Acs and that is involved in ethanol assimilation and other metabolic processes. We purified the gene product of facA (FacA) from the fungus to show that the fungus acetylates FacA on its lysine residue(s) specifically under conditions of ammonia fermentation to regulate its substrate affinity. Acetylated FacA had higher affinity for acetyl-CoA than for acetate, whereas non-acetylated FacA had more affinity for acetate. Thus, the acetylated variant of the FacA protein is responsible for ATP synthesis during fungal ammonia fermentation. These results showed that the fungus ferments ammonium via coupled dissimilatory and assimilatory mechanisms.
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PMID:Fungal ammonia fermentation, a novel metabolic mechanism that couples the dissimilatory and assimilatory pathways of both nitrate and ethanol. Role of acetyl CoA synthetase in anaerobic ATP synthesis. 1472 82

Hyperthermophiles are a group of microorganisms that have their optimum growth temperature above 80 degrees C. More than 60 species of the hyperthermophiles have been isolated from marine and continental volcanic environments. Most hyperthermophiles belong to Archaea, the third domain of life, and are considered to be the most ancient of all extant life forms. Recent studies have revealed the presence of unusual sugar metabolic processes in hyperthermophilic archaea, for example, a modified Embden-Meyerhof pathway, that has so far not been observed in bacteria and eucarya. Several novel enzymes, such as ADP-dependent glucokinase, ADP-dependent phosphofructokinase, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate ferredoxin oxidoreductase, phosphoenolpyruvate synthase, pyruvate : ferredoxin oxidoreductase, and ADP-forming acetyl-CoA synthetase, have been found to be involved in a modified Embden-Meyerhof pathway of the hyperthermophilic archaeon Pyrococcus furiosus. In addition, a unique mode of ATP regeneration has been postulated to exist in the pathway of P. furiosus. The metabolic design observed in this microorganism might reflect the situation at an early stage of evolution.
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PMID:Unique sugar metabolism and novel enzymes of hyperthermophilic archaea. 1476 28

ADP-forming acetyl-CoA synthetase (ACD), the novel enzyme of acetate formation and energy conservation in archaea Acety - CoA + ADP + Pi<==>acetate + ATP CoA), has been studied only in few hyperthermophilic euryarchaea. Here, we report the characterization of two ACDs with unique molecular and catalytic features, from the mesophilic euryarchaeon Haloarcula marismortui and from the hyperthermophilic crenarchaeon Pyrobaculum aerophilum. ACD from H. marismortui was purified and characterized as a salt-dependent, mesophilic ACD of homodimeric structure (166 kDa). The encoding gene was identified in the partially sequenced genome of H. marismortui and functionally expressed in Escherichia coli. The recombinant enzyme was reactivated from inclusion bodies following solubilization and refolding in the presence of salts. The ACD catalyzed the reversible ADP- and Pi-dependent conversion of acetyl-CoA to acetate. In addition to acetate, propionate, butyrate, and branched-chain acids (isobutyrate, isovalerate) were accepted as substrates, rather than the aromatic acids, phenylacetate and indol-3-acetate. In the genome of P. aerophilum, the ORFs PAE3250 and PAE 3249, which code for alpha and beta subunits of an ACD, overlap each other by 1 bp, indicating a novel gene organization among identified ACDs. The two ORFs were separately expressed in E. coli and the recombinant subunits alpha (50 kDa) and beta (28 kDa) were in-vitro reconstituted to an active heterooligomeric protein of high thermostability. The first crenarchaeal ACD showed the broadest substrate spectrum of all known ACDs, catalyzing the conversion of acetyl-CoA, isobutyryl-CoA, and phenylacetyl-CoA at high rates. In contrast, the conversion of phenylacetyl-CoA in euryarchaeota is catalyzed by specific ACD isoenzymes.
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PMID:Unusual ADP-forming acetyl-coenzyme A synthetases from the mesophilic halophilic euryarchaeon Haloarcula marismortui and from the hyperthermophilic crenarchaeon Pyrobaculum aerophilum. 1534 Jul 86

Hyperthermophiles, a group of microorganisms whose optimum growth temperatures are above 80 degrees C, have been isolated mainly from marine and continental volcanic environments. They are viewed as potential sources of extraordinarily stable biomolecules with applications in novel industrial processes. Most hyperthermophiles belong to the domain Archaea, the third domain of life, and are considered to be the most ancient of all extant life forms. Recent studies have revealed unusual energy metabolic processes in hyperthermophilic archaea, e.g. a modified Embden-Meyerhof pathway, that have not been observed so far in organisms belonging to the Bacteria and Eucarya domains. Several novel enzymes--ADP-dependent glucokinase, ADP-dependent phosphofruktokinase, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate ferredoxin oxidoreductase, phosphoenolpyruvate synthase, pyruvate: ferredoxin oxidoreductase, and ADP-forming acetyl-CoA synthetase--have been found to be involved in the modified Embden-Meyerhof pathway of the hyperthermophilic archaeon Pyrococcus furiosus. In addition, a novel regulation site for energy metabolism and a unique mode of ATP regeneration have been postulated to exist in the pathway of P. furiosus. The metabolic design observed in this microorganism might reflect the situation at an early stage of evolution. This review focuses mainly on the unique energy metabolism and related enzymes of P. furiosus that have recently been described.
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PMID:Novel energy metabolism in anaerobic hyperthermophilic archaea: a modified Embden-Meyerhof pathway. 1623 30


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