Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound
Pivot Concepts: Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound   Target Concepts: Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound

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Query: EC:3.1.3.16 (calcineurin)
17,112 document(s) hit in 31,850,051 MEDLINE articles (0.00 seconds)

Glycogen-targeting PP1 (protein phosphatase 1) subunit G(L) (coded for by the PPP1R3B gene) is expressed in human, but not rodent, skeletal muscle. Its effects on muscle glycogen metabolism are unknown. We show that G(L) mRNA levels in primary cultured human myotubes are similar to those in freshly excised muscle, unlike subunits G(M) (gene PPP1R3A) or PTG (protein targeting to glycogen; gene PPP1R3C), which decrease strikingly. In cultured myotubes, expression of the genes coding for G(L), G(M) and PTG is not regulated by glucose or insulin. Overexpression of G(L) activates myotube GS (glycogen synthase), glycogenesis in glucose-replete and -depleted cells and glycogen accumulation. Compared with overexpressed G(M), G(L) has a more potent activating effect on glycogenesis, while marked enhancement of their combined action is only observed in glucose-replete cells. G(L) does not affect GP (glycogen phosphorylase) activity, while co-overexpression with muscle GP impairs G(L) activation of GS in glucose-replete cells. G(L) enhances long-term glycogenesis additively to glucose depletion and insulin, although G(L) does not change the phosphorylation of GSK3 (GS kinase 3) on Ser9 or its upstream regulator kinase Akt/protein kinase B on Ser473, nor its response to insulin. In conclusion, in cultured human myotubes, the G(L) gene is expressed as in muscle tissue and is unresponsive to glucose or insulin, as are G(M) and PTG genes. G(L) activates GS regardless of glucose, does not regulate GP and stimulates glycogenesis in combination with insulin and glucose depletion.
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PMID:Expression and glycogenic effect of glycogen-targeting protein phosphatase 1 regulatory subunit GL in cultured human muscle. 1755 3

Glycogen synthesis is normally absent in neurons. However, inclusion bodies resembling abnormal glycogen accumulate in several neurological diseases, particularly in progressive myoclonus epilepsy or Lafora disease. We show here that mouse neurons have the enzymatic machinery for synthesizing glycogen, but that it is suppressed by retention of muscle glycogen synthase (MGS) in the phosphorylated, inactive state. This suppression was further ensured by a complex of laforin and malin, which are the two proteins whose mutations cause Lafora disease. The laforin-malin complex caused proteasome-dependent degradation both of the adaptor protein targeting to glycogen, PTG, which brings protein phosphatase 1 to MGS for activation, and of MGS itself. Enforced expression of PTG led to glycogen deposition in neurons and caused apoptosis. Therefore, the malin-laforin complex ensures a blockade of neuronal glycogen synthesis even under intense glycogenic conditions. Here we explain the formation of polyglucosan inclusions in Lafora disease by demonstrating a crucial role for laforin and malin in glycogen synthesis.
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PMID:Mechanism suppressing glycogen synthesis in neurons and its demise in progressive myoclonus epilepsy. 1796 48

Lafora progressive myoclonus epilepsy (LD) is a fatal autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the presence of glycogen-like intracellular inclusions called Lafora bodies. LD is caused by mutations in two genes, EPM2A and EPM2B, encoding respectively laforin, a dual-specificity protein phosphatase, and malin, an E3 ubiquitin ligase. Previously, we and others have suggested that the interactions between laforin and PTG (a regulatory subunit of type 1 protein phosphatase) and between laforin and malin are critical in the pathogenesis of LD. Here, we show that the laforin-malin complex downregulates PTG-induced glycogen synthesis in FTO2B hepatoma cells through a mechanism involving ubiquitination and degradation of PTG. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the interaction between laforin and malin is a regulated process that is modulated by the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). These findings provide further insights into the critical role of the laforin-malin complex in the control of glycogen metabolism and unravel a novel link between the energy sensor AMPK and glycogen metabolism. These data advance our understanding of the functional role of laforin and malin, which hopefully will facilitate the development of appropriate LD therapies.
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PMID:Regulation of glycogen synthesis by the laforin-malin complex is modulated by the AMP-activated protein kinase pathway. 1802 86

Lafora disease (LD) is an autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disease that results in progressive myoclonus epilepsy and death. LD is caused by mutations in either the E3 ubiquitin ligase malin or the dual specificity phosphatase laforin. A hallmark of LD is the accumulation of insoluble glycogen in the cytoplasm of cells from most tissues. Glycogen metabolism is regulated by phosphorylation of key metabolic enzymes. One regulator of this phosphorylation is protein targeting to glycogen (PTG/R5), a scaffold protein that binds both glycogen and many of the enzymes involved in glycogen synthesis, including protein phosphatase 1 (PP1), glycogen synthase, phosphorylase, and laforin. Overexpression of PTG markedly increases glycogen accumulation, and decreased PTG expression decreases glycogen stores. To investigate if malin and laforin play a role in glycogen metabolism, we overexpressed PTG, malin, and laforin in tissue culture cells. We found that expression of malin or laforin decreased PTG-stimulated glycogen accumulation by 25%, and co-expression of malin and laforin abolished PTG-stimulated glycogen accumulation. Consistent with this result, we found that malin ubiquitinates PTG in a laforin-dependent manner, both in vivo and in vitro, and targets PTG for proteasome-dependent degradation. These results suggest an additional mechanism, involving laforin and malin, in regulating glycogen metabolism.
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PMID:Malin decreases glycogen accumulation by promoting the degradation of protein targeting to glycogen (PTG). 1807 Aug 75

Glucokinase (GK, hexokinase type IV) is required for the accumulation of glycogen in adult liver and hepatoma cells. Paradoxically, mammalian embryonic livers store glycogen successfully in the absence of GK. Here we address how mammalian embryonic livers, but not adult livers or hepatoma cells, manage to accumulate glycogen in the absence of this enzyme. Hexokinase type I or II (HKI, HKII) substitutes for GK in hepatomas and in embryonic livers. We engineered FTO2B cells, a hepatoma cell line in which GK is not expressed, to unveil the modifications required to allow them to accumulate glycogen. In the light of these results, we then examined glycogen metabolism in embryonic liver. Glycogen accumulation in FTO2B cells can be triggered through elevated expression of HKI or either of the protein phosphatase 1 regulatory subunits, namely PTG or G L. Between these two strategies to activate glycogen deposition in the absence of GK, embryonic livers choose to express massive levels of HKI and HKII. We conclude that although the GK/liver glycogen synthase tandem is ideally suited to store glycogen in liver when blood glucose is high, the substitution of HKI for GK in embryonic livers allows the HKI/liver glycogen synthase tandem to make glycogen independently of the glucose concentration in blood, although it requires huge levels of HK. Moreover, the physiological consequence of the HK isoform switch is that the embryonic liver safeguards its glycogen deposits, required as the main source of energy at birth, from maternal starvation.
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PMID:Hepatic glycogen synthesis in the absence of glucokinase: the case of embryonic liver. 1816 36

PTG and G(L) are hepatic protein phosphatase-1 (PP1) glycogen-targeting subunits, which direct PP1 activity against glycogen synthase (GS) and/or phosphorylase (GP). The C-terminal 16 amino residues of G(L) comprise a high affinity binding site for GP that regulates bound PP1 activity against GS. In this study, a truncated G(L) construct lacking the GP-binding site (G(L)tr) and a chimeric PTG molecule containing the C-terminal site (PTG-G(L)) were generated. As expected, GP binding to glutathione S-transferase (GST)-G(L)tr was reduced, whereas GP binding to GST-PTG-G(L) was increased 2- to 3-fold versus GST-PTG. In contrast, PP1 binding to all proteins was equivalent. Primary mouse hepatocytes were infected with adenoviral constructs for each subunit, and their effects on glycogen metabolism were investigated. G(L)tr expression was more effective at promoting GP inactivation, GS activation, and glycogen accumulation than G(L). Removal of the regulatory GP-binding site from G(L)tr completely blocked the inactivation of GS seen in G(L)-expressing cells following a drop in extracellular glucose. As a result, G(L)tr expression prevented glycogen mobilization under 5 mm glucose conditions. In contrast, equivalent overexpression of PTG or PTG-G(L) caused a similar increase in glycogen-targeted PP1 levels and GS dephosphorylation. Surprisingly, GP dephosphorylation was significantly reduced in PTG-G(L)-overexpressing cells. As a result, PTG-G(L) expression permitted glycogenolysis under 5 mm glucose conditions that was prevented in PTG-expressing cells. Thus, expression of constructs that contained the high affinity GP-binding site (G(L) and PTG-G(L)) displayed reduced glycogen accumulation and enhanced glycogenolysis compared with their respective controls, albeit via different mechanisms.
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PMID:Differential regulation of glycogenolysis by mutant protein phosphatase-1 glycogen-targeting subunits. 1948 2

Modulation of the expression of the protein phosphatase-1 (PP1) glycogen-targeting subunit PTG exerts profound effects on cellular glycogen metabolism in vitro and in vivo. PTG contains three distinct binding domains for glycogen, PP1, and a common site for glycogen synthase and phosphorylase. The impact of disrupting the PP1-binding domain on PTG function was examined in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. A full-length PTG mutant was generated as an adenoviral construct in which the valine and phenylalanine residues in the conserved PP1-binding domain were mutated to alanine (PTG-VF). Infection of fully differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes with the PTG-VF adenovirus reduced glycogen stores by over 50%. In vitro, PTG-VF competitively interfered with wild-type PTG action, suggesting that the mutant construct acted as a dominant-negative molecule. The reduction in cellular glycogen storage was due to a significantly increased rate of glycogen turnover. Interestingly, acute basal and insulin-stimulated glucose uptake and glycogen synthesis rates were enhanced in PTG-VF expressing cells vs. control 3T3-L1 adipocytes, likely as a compensatory response to the loss of glycogen stores. These results indicate that the mutation of the PP1-binding domain on PTG resulted in the generation of a dominant-negative molecule that impeded endogenous PTG action and reduced cellular glycogen levels, through enhancement of glycogenolysis rather than impairment of glycogen synthesis.
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PMID:Generation of a dominant-negative glycogen targeting subunit for protein phosphatase-1. 2020 31

Lafora disease is a fatal autosomal recessive form of progressive myoclonus epilepsy. Patients manifest myoclonus and tonic-clonic seizures, visual hallucinations, intellectual, and progressive neurologic deterioration beginning in adolescence. The two genes known to be involved in Lafora disease are EPM2A and NHLRC1 (EPM2B). The EPM2A gene encodes laforin, a dual-specificity protein phosphatase, and the NHLRC1 gene encodes malin, an E3-ubiquitin ligase. The two proteins interact with each other and, as a complex, are thought to regulate glycogen synthesis. Here, we report three Lafora families with two novel pathogenic mutations (C46Y and L261P) and two recurrent mutations (P69A and D146N) in NHLRC1. Investigation of their functional consequences in cultured mammalian cells revealed that malin(C46Y), malin(P69A), malin(D146N), and malin(L261P) mutants failed to downregulate the level of R5/PTG, a regulatory subunit of protein phosphatase 1 involved in glycogen synthesis. Abnormal accumulation of intracellular glycogen was observed with all malin mutants, reminiscent of the polyglucosan inclusions (Lafora bodies) present in patients with Lafora disease.
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PMID:Lafora progressive myoclonus epilepsy: NHLRC1 mutations affect glycogen metabolism. 2150 99

Lafora disease is the most common teenage-onset neurodegenerative disease, the main teenage-onset form of progressive myoclonus epilepsy (PME), and one of the severest epilepsies. Pathologically, a starch-like compound, polyglucosan, accumulates in neuronal cell bodies and overtakes neuronal small processes, mainly dendrites. Polyglucosan formation is catalyzed by glycogen synthase, which is activated through dephosphorylation by glycogen-associated protein phosphatase-1 (PP1). Here we remove PTG, one of the proteins that target PP1 to glycogen, from mice with Lafora disease. This results in near-complete disappearance of polyglucosans and in resolution of neurodegeneration and myoclonic epilepsy. This work discloses an entryway to treating this fatal epilepsy and potentially other glycogen storage diseases.
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PMID:PTG depletion removes Lafora bodies and rescues the fatal epilepsy of Lafora disease. 2155 27

Hypoxia is an important environmental stressor that leads to rapid adaptive changes in metabolic organization. However, the molecular mechanisms of hypoxia tolerance in fish remain largely unknown. The present work was focused on understanding the molecular mechanisms and signaling pathways that may lead to tolerance of Clarias batrachus to hypoxic stress. Protein phosphatase 1 regulatory subunit 3C (PPP1R3C) is a new hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) targeted gene and is regulated by HIF-1 under hypoxic conditions. Overexpression of PPP1R3C increases glycogen accumulation through activation of several enzymes and processes. In this study, for the first time, full length cDNA of PPP1R3C from C. batrachus was characterized and its expression pattern in the brain, liver, muscle and spleen under short (progressive hypoxia; PH, 1h, 6h and 12h) and long-term (natural) hypoxic conditions was investigated. The complete cDNA of PPP1R3C was of 1499 bp, encoding 285 amino acid residues. The identified protein had a protein phosphatase 1 binding motif and a carbohydrate binding domain, thought to be involved in the regulation of glycogen metabolism. Short-term hypoxia exposure caused significant increase in PPP1R3C transcripts in the liver (6h; 6.96 fold and 12h; 3.91 fold) and muscle (progressive hypoxia; 3.46 fold), while, after long-term hypoxia exposure, significant up-regulation in the liver (7.77 fold) and spleen (6.59 fold) tissues was observed. No significant differences were observed in the brain for any time periods. Thus PPP1R3C may play an important role in the tolerance of C. batrachus to hypoxia.
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PMID:Molecular characterization and expression analysis of PPP1R3C in hypoxia-tolerant Indian catfish, Clarias batrachus (Linnaeus, 1758) under hypoxia. 2394 83


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