Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound
Pivot Concepts: Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound   Target Concepts: Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound

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Query: EC:3.1.1.7 (acetylcholinesterase)
28,390 document(s) hit in 31,850,051 MEDLINE articles (0.00 seconds)

This paper re-examines a previously published segmental map of the frog diencephalon (Puelles et al. [1996] Brain Behav.Evol. 47:279-310) by means of immunocytochemical mapping of calretinin, calbindin, and tyrosine hydroxylase. The distribution of neuronal populations, axon tracts, and neuropils immunoreactive for these markers was studied in adult specimens of Rana perezi and Xenopus laevis sectioned sagittally or horizontally. Emphasis was placed on study of the relationship of observed chemoarchitectural boundaries with the postulated overall prosomeric organization and the schema of nuclear subdivisions we reported previously, based on acetylcholinesterase histochemistry and Nissl pattern in Rana. The data reveal a large-scale correspondence with the segmental map in both species, although some differences were noted between Rana and Xenopus. Notably, retinorecipient neuropils were generally immunoreactive for calretinin only in Rana. Importantly, calretinin immunostaining underlines particularly well the transverse prosomeric boundaries of the dorsal thalamus. A number of nuclear subdivisions noted before with AChE were corroborated, and some novel subdivisions became apparent, particularly in the anterior nucleus of the dorsal thalamus and in the habenular complex. The mapping of tyrosine hydroxylase clarified the segmental distribution of the catecholaminergic cell groups in the frog forebrain, which is comparable to that observed in other vertebrates.
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PMID:Patterns of calretinin, calbindin, and tyrosine-hydroxylase expression are consistent with the prosomeric map of the frog diencephalon. 1071 42

The present study used mice deficient for dopamine D(2) and D(3) receptors to test whether the expression of these two members of the D(2) class of receptors is essential for the normal expression of three markers that characterize the neurochemical differentiation of the striatum: the calcium-binding protein calbindin, tyrosine hydroxylase and acetylcholinesterase. Results from these experiments revealed that the expression of striatal tyrosine hydroxylase (the rate-limiting enzyme of dopamine synthesis) and acetylcholinesterase is unaffected even by the combined knockout of D(2) and D(3) receptors. However, D(2) and D(3) receptor knockouts differently affect the striatal expression of calbindin-D(28k) immunoreactivity. Prominent changes in the cellular distribution of calbindin are detected in striatal neurons of D(2) mutant mice. Whereas calbindin immunolabeling of wild-type neurons is prominent in the nuclei and the cytoplasm of medium spiny neurons, in D(2) mutant mice, calbindin immunoreactivity is concentrated exclusively in the cytoplasmic rim of these neurons. Such changes in the cellular distribution of calbindin expression are not detected in mice lacking D(3) receptors. In these mutants, however, a lesser density of calbindin-immunoreactive neuropil is detected in the ventral portions of the striatum, i.e. in regions in which D(3) receptors are thought to be expressed at highest levels. Mice lacking both D(2) and D(3) receptors show both phenotypes. The altered cellular distribution of calbindin in D(2) mutants is likely to have functional consequences for some of the Ca(2+)-mediated cellular functions. The topography of the decreased density of striatal calbindin immunorectivity in D(3) mutants suggests a role for D(3) receptors in supporting the expression of striatal calbindin. The observation that mice lacking both D(2) and D(3) receptors show a combination of the D(2) and D(3) mutant phenotypes indicates that each of the different phenotypes detected in the single mutants is indeed related to the lack of the two different D(2)-like receptor subtypes.
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PMID:Targeted disruption of the dopamine D(2) and D(3) receptor genes leads to different alterations in the expression of striatal calbindin-D(28k). 1082 32

The cyto- and chemoarchitecture of the human paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus (Pa) was studied with the aid of three-dimensional computer reconstruction. The adult human Pa is a vertically elongated structure that abuts the wall of the third ventricle (3V) medially and is indented dorsolaterally by the descending fornix. Chemoarchitecture revealed the following five subnuclei in the human Pa. The most prominent of these is the magnocellular subnucleus (PaM) occupying the ventrolateral quadrant of the Pa and comprised of a concentration of large arginin-vasopressin (AVP)- and acetylcholinesterase (AChE)-positive cells, and small calbindin (Cb)-positive neurons. Rostrally, the PaM is succeeded by the small anterior parvicellular subnucleus (PaAP), which contains small AChE-, AVP- and tyrosin hydroxylase (TH)-positive cells. Dorsal to the PaM is found the dorsal subnucleus (PaD), containing large spindle-shaped TH-, oxytocin (OXY)-, and AChE-positive cells, as well as a population of small Cb-positive neurons. Abutting the wall of the 3V and medial to PaM and PaD is the parvicellular subnucleus (PaP). The PaP contains small cells immunoreactive for corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), neuromedin K receptor (NK3), and nonphosphorylated neurofilament protein (SMI32). The posterior subnucleus (PaPo) is situated posterior to the descending column of the fornix; it replaces all above-mentioned subdivisions caudally, and is a chemoarchitectonic amalgam that includes dispersed large AChE-, OXY-, AVP- and TH-positive cells, as well as small NK3-, CRF-, SMI32- and Cb-immunoreactive neurons. The present findings suggest that the human PaM and PaD are homologues to the magnocellular subnuclei of the rat Pa, whereas the human PaP and PaPo correspond to the rat medial parvicellular and posterior subnuclei, respectively.
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PMID:Organization of the human paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus. 1086 60

Basic fibroblast growth factor-responsive neural stem cells (NSCs) derived from adult rat hippocampus were earlier demonstrated to generate neurons and glia. These stem-cell-derived neurons express GABA, acetylcholinesterase, tyrosine hydroxylase, or calbindin. It has not been clear, however, whether or not these stem-cell-derived neurons are able to form functional synapses. In the present study, we investigated the development of synapse formation by adult hippocampus-derived neural stem cells. NSCs from adult rat hippocampi and primary embryonic rat hippocampal neurons were cocultured on a glial feeder layer. Immunofluorescence studies revealed that some of the NSCs became immunoreactive for microtubule-associated protein 2ab, neurofilament 200, synaptobrevin, or synaptophysin. These cells possessed properties of functional neurons such as action potentials and miniature postsynaptic currents (mPSCs). The elicited mPSCs with rapid kinetics were blocked by 6,7-dinitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (DNQX), but not by bicuculline (excitatory mPSCs). The remaining mPSCs had slower kinetics and were blocked by bicuculline, but not by DNQX (inhibitory mPSCs). We considered that the neurons derived from the adult NSCs expressed both non-NMDA glutamate receptors and the GABA(A) receptors and formed functional synapses. Our results demonstrate that adult NSCs can differentiate into neurons with functional glutamatergic and GABAergic synaptic transmission in vitro and support the concept that such neurons could integrate into the neuronal circuitry.
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PMID:Neurons generated from adult rat hippocampal stem cells form functional glutamatergic and GABAergic synapses in vitro. 1096 86

The cyto- and chemoarchitecture of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (BFCN) was investigated in the lower primate, the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). A large population of magnocellular, hyperchromic, and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT)-positive neurons was detected in the marmoset basal forebrain. The distribution of these neurons was similar to those in higher primates. Thus, ChAT-positive neurons were observed in the medial septum (Ch2), the vertical (Ch2) and horizontal (Ch3) limbs of the diagonal band of Broca, and the nucleus basalis of Meynert (Ch4). The Ch4 complex was relatively well differentiated and displayed distinct sectors. We detected anterior (Ch4a, with a medial and a lateral subdivision), intermediate (Ch4i, with a dorsal and a ventral subdivision), and posterior (Ch4p) sectors in the marmoset Ch4. The Ch4i was relatively small while the Ch4p was large. Similar to the rodent, the marmoset Ch1 extended quite a distance posteriorly, and the Ch4p displayed a major interstitial component distributed within the globus pallidus, its medullary laminae, and the internal capsule. Virtually all of the marmoset BFCN displayed acetylcholinesterase activity, and low affinity (p75(NTR)) and high affinity (Trk) neurotrophin receptor immunoreactivity. A majority contained immunoreactivity for calbindin-D(28K) and calretinin. Many of the Ch4 neurons also displayed tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity. The BFCN lacked galanin immunoreactivity, but were innervated by galanin-positive fibers. None of the marmoset BFCN were NADPH-d-positive. Thus, the BFCN display major anatomical and biochemical differences in the marmoset when compared with higher primates. The marmoset BFCN also display many characteristics common to other primates. This fact, combined with the relatively short life span of the marmoset, indicates that this species may be ideal for studies of age-related changes in the BFCN.
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PMID:Cyto- and chemoarchitecture of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons in the common marmoset (Callithrix jacchus). 1099 91

Neural and stem cell transplantation is emerging as a potential treatment for neurodegenerative diseases. Transplantation of specific committed neuroblasts (fetal neurons) to the adult brain provides such scientific exploration of these new potential therapies. Huntington's disease (HD) is a fatal, incurable autosomal dominant (CAG repeat expansion of huntingtin protein) neurodegenerative disorder with primary neuronal pathology within the caudate-putamen (striatum). In a clinical trial of human fetal striatal tissue transplantation, one patient died 18 months after transplantation from cardiovascular disease, and postmortem histological analysis demonstrated surviving transplanted cells with typical morphology of the developing striatum. Selective markers of both striatal projection and interneurons such as dopamine and c-AMP-related phosphoprotein, calretinin, acetylcholinesterase, choline acetyltransferase, tyrosine hydroxylase, calbindin, enkephalin, and substance P showed positive transplant regions clearly innervated by host tyrosine hydroxylase fibers. There was no histological evidence of immune rejection including microglia and macrophages. Notably, neuronal protein aggregates of mutated huntingtin, which is typical HD neuropathology, were not found within the transplanted fetal tissue. Thus, although there is a genetically predetermined process causing neuronal death within the HD striatum, implanted fetal neural cells lacking the mutant HD gene may be able to replace damaged host neurons and reconstitute damaged neuronal connections. This study demonstrates that grafts derived from human fetal striatal tissue can survive, develop, and are unaffected by the disease process, at least for 18 months, after transplantation into a patient with HD.
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PMID:Transplanted fetal striatum in Huntington's disease: phenotypic development and lack of pathology. 1113 40

Many endogenous neurochemicals that are known to have important functions in the mature central nervous system have also been found in the developing human cerebellum. Cholinergic neurons, as revealed by immunoreactivities towards choline acetyltransferase or acetylcholinesterase, appear early at 23 weeks of gestation in the cerebellar cortex and deep nuclei. Immunoreactivities gradually increase until the first postnatal month. Enkephalin is localized in the developing cerebellum, initially in the fibers of the cortex and deep nuclei at 16-20 weeks and then also in the Purkinje cells, granule cells, basket cells and Golgi cells at 23 weeks onward. Another neuropeptide, substance P, is localized mainly in the fibers of the dentate nucleus from 9 to 24 weeks but substance P immunoreactivity declines thereafter. GABA, an inhibitory neurotransmitter of the central nervous system, starts to appear at 16 weeks in the Purkinje cells, stellate cells, basket cells, mossy fibers and neurons of deep nuclei. GABA expression is gradually upregulated toward term forming networks of GABA-positive fibers and neurons. Catecholaminergic fibers and neurons are also detected in the cortex and deep nuclei at as early as 16 weeks. Calcium binding proteins, calbindin D28K and parvalbumin, make their first appearance in the cortex and deep nuclei at 14 weeks and then their expression decreases toward term, while calretinin appears later at 21 weeks but its expression increases with fetal age. The above findings suggest that many neurotransmitters, neuropeptides and calcium binding proteins (1) appear early during development of the cerebellum; (2) have specific temporal and spatial expression patterns; (3) may have functions other than those found in the mature neural systems; and (4) may be able to interact with each other during early development.
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PMID:Neurotransmitters, neuropeptides and calcium binding proteins in developing human cerebellum: a review. 1112 73

In the Madagascan hedgehog tenrec, Echinops telfairi, the entire paleocortical region (PCx) subjacent to the rhinal indentation is composed of three layers and occupies up to two thirds of the lateral hemisphere. A clear differentiation of PCx into its presumed constituents, the piriform cortex and the entorhinal cortex, as seen in other mammals, has not been obtained so far. To gain insight into location and intrinsic organization of these areas in a basal placental mammal we investigated the tenrec's PCx using cyto-, myelo- and chemoarchitectural criteria (zinc, acetylcholinesterase, NADPh-diaphorase, Wisteria floribunda agglutinin, parvalbumin, calbindin, calretinin) and analysed its connections with the olfactory bulb. The layers 2 and 3 of the tenrec's PCx differed from the corresponding layers in the rat. The layer 2 showed a complex distribution of corticobulbar cells but could not be subdivided, in contrast to layer 3. Additional cell groups in the depth of PCx were tentatively compared with subdivisions of the endopiriform region. The architectural and connectional features varied clearly along the rostrocaudal and dorso-ventral extents of PCx and gave hints for the presence of different paleocortical subdivisions. With the possible exception of an area located at the most caudal tip of the dorsomedial hemisphere, however, no conclusive evidence was obtained for the presence of a multilayered, entorhinal region. The bulbar projections to the PCx were very extensive and almost exclusively ipsilateral. The laterality of the projection is similar to that in higher mammals, but differs from that in the erinaceous hedgehog.
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PMID:The subrhinal paleocortex in the hedgehog tenrec: a multiarchitectonic characterization and an analysis of its connections with the olfactory bulb. 1113 Oct 16

Based on cytoarchitectonic criteria, the primate pulvinar nucleus has been subdivided into medial (PM), lateral (PL), and inferior (PI) regions. However, these subdivisions show no correlation with those established by electrophysiological, immunocytochemical, or neuroanatomical tracer studies. In this work, we studied the connections of the pulvinar nucleus of Cebus monkey with visual areas V1, V2, V4, MT, and PO by means of retrograde fluorescent tracers injected into these areas. Based on the projection zones to cortical visual areas, the visual portion of the pulvinar of Cebus monkey was subdivided into three subregions: P1, P2, and P3, similar to those described in the macaque (Ungerleider et al., 1984). In Cebus, P1 includes the centrolateral portion of traditionally defined PI and adjacent portion of PL. P2 is located in the dorsal portion of PL and P3 includes the medial portion of PI and extends dorsally into adjacent PL and PM. In addition, we studied the histology of the pulvinar using multiple criteria, such as cytoarchitecture and myeloarchitecture; histochemistry for cytochrome oxidase, NADPH-diaphorase, and acetylcholinesterase; and immunocytochemistry for two calcium-binding proteins, calbindin and parvalbumin, and for a neurofilament recognized by the SMI-32 antibody. Some of these stains, mainly calbindin, showed additional subdivisions of the Cebus pulvinar, beyond the traditional PI, PL, and PM. Based on this immunohistochemical staining, the border of PI is moved dorsally above the brachium of the superior colliculus and PI can be subdivided in five regions (PI(P), PI(M), PI(C), PI(L), and PI(LS)). Regions P1, P2, and P3 defined based on efferent connections with cortical visual areas are not architectonically/neurochemically homogeneous. Rather they appear to consist of further chemoarchitectonic subdivisions. These distinct histochemical regions might be related to different functional modules of visual processing within one connectional area.
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PMID:Connectional and neurochemical subdivisions of the pulvinar in Cebus monkeys. 1134 14

There have been previous reports of somatostatin- and acetylcholinesterase (AChE)-positive patches in the superficial layers of the presubiculum in monkeys. In this study, we show additional instances of patches in the presubiculum, as demonstrated by cytochrome oxidase (CO), by myelin and Nissl stains, and by the calcium-binding proteins calbindin (CB), calretinin (CR), and parvalbumin (PV). Markers are differentially expressed along the lateral and longitudinal axes. Comparisons of adjacent sections reacted for different markers suggest that the CB+ and CR+ patches, and CO+ and AChE+ patches generally correspond, but not the CB+ and CO+ patches. In cross section, patches are about 100-300 microm in width. Sections cut tangentially through the superficial layers indicate that the pattern of CO and AChE labeling is in fact patchlike in layer I, but that the apparent patches in layer II (CB and CR) form a reticular or lattice-like network. As patches are restricted to the presubiculum, these labeling patterns provide a convenient marker for the boundary between the presubiculum and the adjoining posteroventral retrosplenial cortex. More work is necessary to determine how this modularity may relate to the functional organization of the presubiculum.
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PMID:Modular organization of the monkey presubiculum. 1154 64


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