Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound
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Query: EC:3.1.1.7 (acetylcholinesterase)
28,390 document(s) hit in 31,850,051 MEDLINE articles (0.00 seconds)

The cytoarchitecture of a spinal cord - dorsal root ganglion - skeletal muscle tissue coculture system was investigated at the level of the light microscope using a number of different staining techniques. In these cultures central synapses between dorsal root ganglion (DRG) cells and interneurons in the ventral spinal cord and between DRG cells and motoneurons were visualized by parvalbumin immunostaining and by intracellular horseradish peroxidase (HRP) filling of DRG cells. Skeletal muscle fibres regenerated in vitro first into multinucleated myotubes, and around day 8 in vitro into well differentiated muscle fibres with regular cross-striation. At the same time newly formed motor endplates could be visualized using acetylcholinesterase staining. The axons of motoneurons could be traced retrogradely by local application of HRP to the regenerated muscle fibres. The motor axons sometimes gave off collaterals reminiscent of Renshaw collaterals at about 300 microm from the axon hillock. Intracellular filling to motoneurons with HRP revealed that only a minority of the motoneurons within a culture had reached their appropriate target. Comparing the dendrograms of the motoneurons which had innervated muscles to those which had not suggested that motoneurons innervating muscle tissue had more complex dendritic trees and larger somata than those which did not innervate muscle tissue. Peripheral neurites of parvalbumin-immunoreactive DRG cells coiling around regenerated muscle fibres could be demonstrated in these cultures. These probably correspond to that part of the sensory muscle spindle apparatus which developed in vivo. However, only a few of the several hundred DRG cells found in every culture were parvalbumin-immunoreactive, suggesting that the actual number of Ia and II afferents within the population of DRG cells in culture is very small. This study demonstrates that all the neural elements necessary for the segmental spinal reflexes develop and can be maintained for several weeks in vitro.
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PMID:An Organotypic Spinal Cord - Dorsal Root Ganglion - Skeletal Muscle Coculture of Embryonic Rat. I. The Morphological Correlates of the Spinal Reflex Arc. 1210 36

Hodological, electrophysiological, and ablation studies indicate a role for the basal forebrain in telencephalic vocal control; however, to date the organization of the basal forebrain has not been extensively studied in any nonmammal or nonhuman vocal learning species. To this end the chemical anatomy of the avian basal forebrain was investigated in a vocal learning parrot, the budgerigar (Melopsittacus undulatus). Immunological and histological stains, including choline acetyltransferase, acetylcholinesterase, tyrosine hydroxylase, dopamine and cAMP-regulated phosphoprotein (DARPP)-32, the calcium binding proteins calbindin D-28k and parvalbumin, calcitonin gene-related peptide, iron, substance P, methionine enkephalin, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphotase diaphorase, and arginine vasotocin were used in the present study. We conclude that the ventral paleostriatum (cf. Kitt and Brauth [1981] Neuroscience 6:1551-1566) and adjacent archistriatal regions can be subdivided into several distinct subareas that are chemically comparable to mammalian basal forebrain structures. The nucleus accumbens is histochemically separable into core and shell regions. The nucleus taeniae (TN) is theorized to be homologous to the medial amygdaloid nucleus. The archistriatum pars ventrolateralis (Avl; comparable to the pigeon archistriatum pars dorsalis) is theorized to be a possible homologue of the central amygdaloid nucleus. The TN and Avl are histochemically continuous with the medial aspects of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and the ventromedial striatum, forming an avian analogue of the extended amygdala. The apparent counterpart in budgerigars of the mammalian nucleus basalis of Meynert consists of a field of cholinergic neurons spanning the basal forebrain. The budgerigar septal region is theorized to be homologous as a field to the mammalian septum. Our results are discussed with regard to both the evolution of the basal forebrain and its role in vocal learning processes.
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PMID:Organization of the avian basal forebrain: chemical anatomy in the parrot (Melopsittacus undulatus). 1245 5

Calbindin-D(28k) (CB), calretinin (CRT), and parvalbumin (PV) are high-affinity cytosolic calcium (Ca(2+)) binding proteins (CBP) that have been found to regulate intracellular calcium concentrations in neurons through their buffering capacity and to protect neurons from insults that induce elevations of intracellular Ca(2+). In earlier studies we observed a substantial and neurochemically specific loss of CB from the human basal forebrain cholinergic neurons (BFCN) in the course of normal aging. In the present experiments we expanded our investigation of age-related changes in calcium binding proteins in the human brain by investigating the status of CB-, CRT-, and PV-positive neurons in 17 cortical areas. There was a trend toward a decrease in the number of CB-immunoreactive neurons in all areas studied. However, this trend reached significance in only 4 areas in which the loss of CB-positive neurons ranged between 20 and 46%. Immunoreactivity for CRT was also decreased in many areas and this difference reached significance in three regions (26-37%). Cortical neurons displaying PV immunoreactivity did not show an age-related change. Comparison with other neurochemically specific cortical neurons indicated a similar age-related loss of nonphosphorylated neurofilament and NADPH-d activity in only a few cortical areas. In contrast, neuronal acetylcholinesterase activity was increased in a few cortical areas. These observations indicate that loss of CBP-positive neurons occurs in restricted cortical regions and is not a specific change as other neurochemically specific neurons also display restricted age-related changes. Furthermore, the age-related changes in cortical CBP-positive neurons appear to be considerably smaller than similar changes in the BFCN. The age-related depletion of CBPs is likely to deprive neurons from the capacity to buffer intracellular calcium and thus to leave them vulnerable to pathological processes that can cause increased intracellular calcium and lead to their degeneration.
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PMID:Age-related changes in calbindin-D28k, calretinin, and parvalbumin-immunoreactive neurons in the human cerebral cortex. 1282 92

The paraventricular thalamic nucleus (Pa) lies in the most medial aspect of the thalamus and is considered one of the midline thalamic nuclei. In the present study, we carried out histochemical and immunohistochemical procedures in the Pa of normal individuals to visualize the pattern of distribution of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), calbindin D-28k (CB), parvalbumin (PV), calretinin (CR), limbic system-associated membrane protein (LAMP), substance P (SP), and enkephalin (ENK). Other cytoarchitectural and myeloarchitectural techniques, such as Nissl and Gallyas, were also employed to delineate the boundaries of the Pa. The main findings of this study are: 1) AChE staining in the Pa was heterogeneously distributed along its anteroposterior and mediolateral axes; 2) the Pa harbored numerous CB- and CR-immunoreactive (ir) cells and neuropil, but this nucleus was largely devoid of PV; 3) the Pa was highly enriched in LAMP and this protein appeared uniformly distributed through its whole extent; and, 4) the SP and ENK immunoreactivities in the Pa revealed numerous highly varicose fibers scattered throughout this nucleus, but no stained cells. This morphological study demonstrates that the Pa is a heterogeneous chemical structure in humans. The functional significance of these results is discussed in the light of similar data gathered in several mammalian species.
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PMID:Chemical anatomy of the human paraventricular thalamic nucleus. 1466 15

This study focused on the temporal and spatial pattern of expression of the cell adhesion molecule axonin-1 in amacrine cells and the identification of these cells in the developing chick retina. We analyzed 5-20-day-old chick embryos. The antigen was localized and visualized by the indirect immunogold and the immunofluorescence technique. Colocalization studies with antibodies against tyrosine hydroxylase, acetylcholinesterase, choline acetyltransferase, parvalbumin, calbindin, and calretinin served to characterize these cells further and to explore whether they have other properties in common. Axonin-1 was expressed in amacrine cells from E8 onward in the inner nuclear, in the inner plexiform, and in the ganglion cell layer. Their maturation showed a gradient similar to that found for amacrinogenesis. Expression was closely correlated with the period when the cells develop and shape their processes. The interneurons were classified with reference to Cajal, and most of the morphological types described by him were found. In addition, some cells were considered as axon-bearing amacrine cells. However, the total number of labeled cells was rather small. At least two morphologically different types terminated in each of the inner plexiform sublayers. Narrow- and wide-field arbors indicated the existence of a diversified network. The colocalization studies revealed that the neurotransmitters and neuropeptides overlapped partially with axonin-1 expression. This indicated that axonin-1-immunoreactive amacrine cells were also functionally diverse.
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PMID:Expression of axonin-1 in developing amacrine cells in the chick retina. 1468 82

The parahippocampal gyrus, located at the medial temporal lobe, is a key structure in declarative memory processing. We have analyzed the general organization of the parahippocampal gyrus in the baboon, a nonhuman primate species relatively close to human. This region is rostrocaudally made up of the temporopolar, perirhinal, entorhinal (divided into seven subfields) and posterior parahippocampal (areas TH and TF) cortices. The basic analysis has been performed in three brains, serially sectioned and stained with thionin, myelin stain, acetylcholinesterase and parvalbumin, to determine cytoarchitectonic boundaries. Borders of all subfields were charted onto camera lucida drawings, and two-dimensional maps of the surface and topography of the parahippocampal gyrus were made. Finally, the limits of each parahippocampal area were then transposed on corresponding MR images (commonly used for in vivo PET or functional MRI activation studies) of two animals for precise identification. The general cytoarchitectonic features of the baboon parahippocampal gyrus are similar to macaques, but the size of temporopolar cortex and the laminar organization of perirhinal and posterior parahippocampal cortices resemble humans more than macaque species. In conclusion, the size and structure of the baboon parahippocampal cortex makes this species very appropriate for experimental studies on memory function.
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PMID:The parahippocampal gyrus in the baboon: anatomical, cytoarchitectonic and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies. 1475 64

A new organization has been found in shell nuclei of rat inferior colliculus. Chemically specific modules with a periodic distribution fill about half of layer 2 of external cortex and dorsal cortex. Modules contain clusters of small glutamic acid decarboxylase-positive neurons and large boutons at higher density than in other inferior colliculus subdivisions. The modules are also present in tissue stained for parvalbumin, cytochrome oxidase, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-diaphorase, and acetylcholinesterase. Six to seven bilaterally symmetrical modules extend from the caudal extremity of the external cortex of the inferior colliculus to its rostral pole. Modules are from approximately 800 to 2200 microm long and have areas between 5000 and 40,000 microm2. Modules alternate with immunonegative regions. Similar modules are found in inbred and outbred strains of rat, and in both males and females. They are absent in mouse, squirrel, cat, bat, macaque monkey, and barn owl. Modules are immunonegative for glycine, calbindin, serotonin, and choline acetyltransferase. The auditory cortex and ipsi- and contralateral inferior colliculi project to the external cortex. Somatic sensory influences from the dorsal column nuclei and spinal trigeminal nucleus are the primary ascending sensory input to the external cortex; ascending auditory input to layer 2 is sparse. If the immunopositive modular neurons receive this input, the external cortex could participate in spatial orientation and somatic motor control through its intrinsic and extrinsic projections.
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PMID:A periodic network of neurochemical modules in the inferior colliculus. 1475 66

We have examined the topography of the cerebral cortex of the Australian echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus), using Nissl and myelin staining, immunoreactivity for parvalbumin, calbindin, and nonphosphorylated neurofilament protein (SMI-32 antibody), and histochemistry for acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and NADPH diaphorase. Myelinated fibers terminating in layer IV of the cortex were abundant in the primary sensory cortical areas (areas S1, R, and PV of somatosensory cortex; primary visual cortex) as well as the frontal cortex. Parvalbumin immunoreactivity was particularly intense in the neuropil and somata of somatosensory regions (S1, R, and PV areas) but was poor in motor cortex. Immunoreactivity with the SMI-32 antibody was largely confined to a single sublayer of layer V pyramidal neurons in discrete subregions of the somatosensory, visual, and auditory cortices, as well as a large field in the frontal cortex (Fr1). Surprisingly, SMI-32 neurons were absent from the motor cortex. In AChE preparations, S1, R, V1, and A regions displayed intense reactivity in supragranular layers. Our findings indicate that there is substantial regional differentiation in the expanded frontal cortex of this monotreme. Although we agree with many of the boundaries identified by previous authors in this unusual mammal (Abbie [1940] J. Comp. Neurol. 72:429-467), we present an updated nomenclature for cortical areas that more accurately reflects findings from functional and chemoarchitectural studies.
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PMID:Cyto- and chemoarchitecture of the cerebral cortex of the Australian echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus). I. Areal organization. 1523 32

Many authors have reported that the claustrum, which comprises the insular claustrum and the endopiriform nucleus, is missing from the monotreme forebrain. We used Nissl and myelin staining in conjunction with enzyme histochemistry for acetylcholinesterase and immunohistochemistry for parvalbumin, calbindin, calretinin and tyrosine hydroxylase to examine the brains of two monotremes, the short-beaked echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus) and the platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus). We found that although the insular claustrum is a small structure in the echidna brain, it is nevertheless clearly present as loosely clustered neurons embedded in the white matter ventrolateral to the putamen and deep to the piriform and entorhinal cortices. Neurons in this region share the chemical features of the adjacent cortex (presence of a similar proportion of parvalbumin immunoreactive neurons and minimal activity for acetylcholinesterase and tyrosine hydroxylase), unlike the adjacent putamen and ventral pallidum. A putative endopiriform nucleus can be identified in the interior of the piriform lobe of the echidna as calretinin immunoreactive neurons embedded within the white matter. The situation is much less clear in the platypus, but our data suggest that there may be an insular claustrum deep to frontal cortex, separated from layer VI by only a thin layer of white matter. We could not identify an endopiriform nucleus in our platypus material. Our findings indicate that presence of the claustrum cannot be considered a feature confined to therian mammals and lend weight to arguments that this structure was present in the ancestral mammalian brain.
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PMID:The claustrum is not missing from all monotreme brains. 1531 53

Blinding diseases can be assigned predominantly to genetic defects of the photoreceptor/pigmented epithelium complex. As an alternative, we show here for an acetylcholinesterase (AChE) knockout mouse that photoreceptor degeneration follows an impaired development of the inner retina. During the first 15 postnatal days of the AChE-/- retina, three major calretinin sublaminae of the inner plexiform layer (IPL) are disturbed. Thereby, processes of amacrine and ganglion cells diffusely criss-cross throughout the IPL. In contrast, parvalbumin cells present a nonlaminar IPL pattern in the wild-type, but in the AChE-/- mouse their processes become structured within two 'novel' sublaminae. During this early period, photoreceptors become arranged regularly and at a normal rate in the AChE-/- retina. However, during the following 75 days, first their outer segments, and then the entire photoreceptor layer completely degenerate by apoptosis. Eventually, cells of the inner retina also undergo apoptosis. As butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) is present at a normal level in the AChE-/- mouse, the observed effects must be solely due to the missing AChE. These are the first in vivo findings to show a decisive role for AChE in the formation of the inner retinal network, which, when absent, ultimately results in photoreceptor degeneration.
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PMID:Impaired formation of the inner retina in an AChE knockout mouse results in degeneration of all photoreceptors. 1557 49


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