Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound
Pivot Concepts: Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound   Target Concepts: Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound

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Query: EC:2.7.7.49 (reverse transcriptase)
31,746 document(s) hit in 31,850,051 MEDLINE articles (0.00 seconds)

We have sequenced Bs1, an insertion element isolated from a null allele of the Adh1 locus encoding alcohol dehydrogenase in maize. The Bs1 element is 3203 base pairs (bp) in length, has 302-bp identical long terminal direct repeats (LTRs), and created a 5-bp flanking direct duplication of target Adh1 DNA upon insertion. The 5' LTR is followed by a canonical primer binding site with homology to the plant initiator methionyl-tRNA, and the 3' LTR is directly preceded by a polypurine stretch like that observed in retroviruses and retrotransposons. Bs1 encodes two overlapping open reading frames specifying peptides of 740 and 168 amino acids. The longer open reading frame specifies a peptide with amino acid homology to the protease and nucleic acid binding moiety of retroviruses and retrotransposons. The deduced amino acid sequence encoded by Bs1 lacks convincing homology to the polymerase (reverse transcriptase) encoded by retroposons, despite the fact that this polymerase-encoding domain is routinely the most conserved region of any such element. The sequence and relatively small size of Bs1 suggest that this element is a deleted retrotransposon that inserted into Adh1 with the aid of a reverse transcriptase function provided in trans. In vitro transcribed Bs1 complementary RNA was translated in vitro to produce both a protein of 81 kDa representing open reading frame 1 (ORF1) and one of the 95-kDa size predicted for the frame-shifted fusion of ORF1 and ORF2. As with many other retroposons, the efficiency of translational initiation at the AUG beginning ORF1 was not noticeably affected by the presence of one or more upstream, unproductive AUGs in the complementary RNA transcript.
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PMID:Structure and coding properties of Bs1, a maize retrovirus-like transposon. 247 29

The complete nucleotide sequence of the glucose-repressed alcohol dehydrogenase II gene (ADR2) from yeast has been established together with its 5'- and 3'-flanking regions. The limits of the gene have been determined by reverse transcriptase sequencing of the 5'-ends and by S1 nuclease mapping of the 3'-ends of the mature ADR2 mRNA. Comparison of the alcohol dehydrogenase I gene (ADC1) sequence (Bennetzen, J. L., and Hall, B.D. (1982) J. Biol. Chem. 257, 3018-3025) with that of ADR2 indicated four regions of sequence conservation in the 5'-flanking DNAs. One of these conserved regions contains the sequence TCAAG which may function as a yeast cap sequence. The coding sequence of ADR2 is 89% homologous with that of ADC1 and exhibits a bias in its codon utilization. Evidence is presented that the intergenic region at the 3'-end of the ADR2 gene is less than 550 base pairs.
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PMID:Nucleotide sequence of the yeast alcohol dehydrogenase II gene. 633 60

Abacavir (ZIAGEN) is a reverse transcriptase inhibitor marketed for the treatment of HIV-1 infection. A small percentage of patients experience a hypersensitivity reaction indicating immune system involvement and bioactivation. A major route of metabolism for abacavir is oxidation of a primary betagamma unsaturated alcohol to a carboxylic acid via an aldehyde intermediate. This process was shown to be mediated in vitro by human cytosol and NAD, and subsequently the alphaalpha and gamma2gamma2 human isoforms of alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH). The alphaalpha isoform effected two sequential oxidation steps to form the acid metabolite and two isomers, qualitatively reflective of in vitro cytosolic profiles. The gamma2gamma2 isozyme generated primarily an isomer of abacavir, which was minor in the alphaalpha profiles. The aldehyde intermediate could be trapped in incubations with both isozymes as an oxime derivative. These metabolites can be rationalized as arising via the aldehyde which undergoes isomerization and further oxidation by the alphaalpha enzyme or reduction by the gamma2gamma2 isozyme. Non-extractable abacavir protein residues were generated in cytosol, and with alphaalpha and gamma2gamma2 incubations in the presence of human serum albumin (HSA). Metabolism and residue formation were blocked by the ADH inhibitor 4-methyl pyrazole (4-MP). The residues generated by the alphaalpha and gamma2gamma2 incubations were analyzed by SDS-PAGE with immunochemical detection. The binding of rabbit anti-abacavir antibody to abacavir-HSA was shown to be dependent on metabolism (i.e. NAD-dependent and 4-MP sensitive). The mechanism of covalent binding remains to be established, but significantly less abacavir-protein residue was detected with an analog of abacavir in which the double bond was removed, suggestive of a double bond migration and 1,4 addition process.
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PMID:The metabolic activation of abacavir by human liver cytosol and expressed human alcohol dehydrogenase isozymes. 1239 60

Studying Arabidopsis mutants of the phenylpropanoid pathway has unraveled several biosynthetic steps of monolignol synthesis. Most of the genes leading to monolignol synthesis have been characterized recently in this herbaceous plant, except those encoding cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenase (CAD). We have used the complete sequencing of the Arabidopsis genome to highlight a new view of the complete CAD gene family. Among nine AtCAD genes, we have identified the two distinct paralogs AtCAD-C and AtCAD-D, which share 75% identity and are likely to be involved in lignin biosynthesis in other plants. Northern, semiquantitative restriction fragment-length polymorphism-reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and western analysis revealed that AtCAD-C and AtCAD-D mRNA and protein ratios were organ dependent. Promoter activities of both genes are high in fibers and in xylem bundles. However, AtCAD-C displayed a larger range of sites of expression than AtCAD-D. Arabidopsis null mutants (Atcad-D and Atcad-C) corresponding to both genes were isolated. CAD activities were drastically reduced in both mutants, with a higher impact on sinapyl alcohol dehydrogenase activity (6% and 38% of residual sinapyl alcohol dehydrogenase activities for Atcad-D and Atcad-C, respectively). Only Atcad-D showed a slight reduction in Klason lignin content and displayed modifications of lignin structure with a significant reduced proportion of conventional S lignin units in both stems and roots, together with the incorporation of sinapaldehyde structures ether linked at Cbeta. These results argue for a substantial role of AtCAD-D in lignification, and more specifically in the biosynthesis of sinapyl alcohol, the precursor of S lignin units.
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PMID:Expression pattern of two paralogs encoding cinnamyl alcohol dehydrogenases in Arabidopsis. Isolation and characterization of the corresponding mutants. 1280 15

There is substantial overlap in retinol and alcohol metabolism. Mice that lack retinoic acid (RA) receptor retinoid X receptor alpha (RXRalpha) expression in the liver are more susceptible to alcoholic liver disease. To investigate the interaction between RXRalpha and alcoholic liver disease, ethanol metabolism was studied in hepatocyte RXRalpha-deficient [RXRalpha knockout (KO)] mice. Hepatocyte RXRalpha deficiency resulted in a significant increase in hepatic alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) activity, ADH1 protein, but not Adh1 mRNA. Polysomal distribution analysis indicated that more polysome-associated Adh1 mRNA was present in the mutant mouse livers, suggesting increased ADH1 protein synthesis in RXRalpha KO mice compared with wild-type mice. However, ADH2 and ADH3 enzyme activities were not affected by RXRalpha deficiency. Although ethanol clearance was increased, acetaldehyde elimination was reduced when RXRalpha was not expressed in the liver. Both mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) 2 and cytosolic ALDH activities were reduced in the mutant mice compared with the wild type. Western blot analysis revealed that the levels of ALDH1A1 and ALDH1A2 were decreased in the mutant mice. Semiquantitative reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction indicated that liver Aldh1a1 mRNA level was also reduced due to the lack of RXRalpha expression. Thus, RXRalpha differentially affects ADH and ALDH activity, leading to an increase in alcohol clearance, but a reduction in acetaldehyde elimination. In addition, CYP2E1 as well as mitochondrial and cytosolic glutathione S-transferase activities were significantly lower in RXRalpha KO mice than in wild-type mice. Our results reveal the central role of RXRalpha in ethanol metabolism.
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PMID:The role of retinoid X receptor alpha in regulating alcohol metabolism. 1682 25

We have detected formate synthesis by Clostridium thermocellum 27405 cultured in both cellobiose and alpha-cellulose. While formate synthesis has been reported for one strain of C. thermocellum (strain I-1-B), numerous studies of C. thermocellum 27405 fermentation, conducted under different growth conditions, failed to detect the presence of formate. Thus, the status of formate synthesis as a fermentation end product by C. thermocellum has been uncertain. Formate synthesis competes with the synthesis of hydrogen (H2) as a fermentation end product, and thus would negatively impact H2 yields in processes designed to generate H2 from biomass. Understanding the mechanism of formate synthesis is the first step in devising means of mitigating its production. Transcription of putative pfl, fnr, and adhE genes, encoding pyruvate formate-lyase (PFL), PFL-activating enzyme (PFL-AE), and alcohol dehydrogenase E (ADH-E) enzymes, respectively, were detected by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reactions using total RNA extracted from stationary phase C. thermocellum cultured on cellobiose. The PCR products observed correspond to the expected amplicon sizes. Nucleotide sequence analysis of the cloned PCR products followed by BLAST analyses confirmed their identity. Formate production was detected throughout growth, and PFL enzyme activity was detected in late log and stationary phase (OD600 = 0.7 and 0.9, respectively) in extracts of C. thermocellum cultured on cellobiose. BLAST analyses revealed that C. thermocellum PFL and PFL-AE have greater amino acid sequence identity with equivalent enzymes from Bacillus and Thermocynechococcus species than with other Clostridium species, but C. thermocellum ADH-E has greater amino acid sequence identity with Clostridium species.
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PMID:Formate synthesis by Clostridium thermocellum during anaerobic fermentation. 1691 25

The mechanisms of teratogenic effects of ethanol in Japanese medaka embryogenesis were investigated by testing the hypothesis that ethanol or its metabolite ameliorates the expression of ethanol metabolizing enzymes. We have previously demonstrated that ethanol is unable to alter the expression pattern of alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) mRNA, the first enzyme of ethanol metabolism, in medaka embryos during development. We, therefore, extended our investigation to aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) system, the next enzyme of alcohol metabolic pathway. As the first step towards studying the regulation of Aldh mRNA expression by ethanol, we have cloned a cDNA by reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) from adult Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) liver representing the medaka ALDH9 gene product, with a coding region of 1515 nucleotides. The deduced amino acid sequences share 81.2% identity with cod liver betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase (BADH, EC 1.2.1.8), and 71.1% identity with human ALDH9A1 sequences. RT-PCR analysis further showed that in adults Aldh9 mRNA is constitutively expressed in all organs tested (brain, eye, gill, GI, heart, liver, kidney, muscle, skin, testis and ovary). Using semi-quantitative (rRT-PCR) and quantitative real time RT-PCR (qRT-PCR), we detected Aldh9 mRNA at all time points of development and the expression was lowest between approximately 1 and 8 h post-fertilization (hpf). Treatment of the embryos with ethanol for 48 h post-fertilization (hpf) attenuates (delayed) the expression of Aldh9 mRNA. This delayed expression of Aldh9 mRNA by ethanol may enhance acetaldehyde concentration in the embryo and induce teratogenesis during development.
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PMID:Ethanol attenuates Aldh9 mRNA expression in Japanese medaka (Oryzias latipes) embryogenesis. 1723 98

Abacavir is a carbocyclic 2'-deoxyguanosine nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor that is used as either a 600-mg once-daily or 300-mg twice-daily regimen exclusively in the treatment of HIV infection. Abacavir is rapidly absorbed after oral administration, with peak concentrations occurring 0.63-1 hour after dosing. The absolute bioavailability of abacavir is approximately 83%. Abacavir pharmacokinetics are linear and dose-proportional over the range of 300-1200 mg/day. To date, one study has assessed the steady-state pharmacokinetics of abacavir following a 600-mg once-daily regimen, and reported a geometric mean steady-state abacavir peak concentration of 3.85 microg/mL. Although this concentration is higher than the steady-state abacavir peak concentration reported following a 300-mg twice-daily regimen (0.88-3.19 microg/mL, depending on the study), the geometric mean steady-state abacavir exposure over 24 hours was similar following these regimens. Coadministration with food has no significant effect on abacavir exposure; therefore, abacavir may be administered with or without food.The apparent volume of distribution of abacavir after intravenous administration is approximately 0.86 +/- 0.15 L/kg, suggesting that abacavir is distributed to extravascular spaces. Binding to plasma proteins is about 50% and is independent of the plasma abacavir concentration. Abacavir is extensively metabolized by the liver; less than 2% is excreted as unchanged drug in the urine. Abacavir is primarily metabolized via two pathways, uridine diphosphate glucuronyltransferase and alcohol dehydrogenase, resulting in the inactive glucuronide metabolite (361W94, ~36% of the dose recovered in the urine) and the inactive carboxylate metabolite (2269W93, approximately 30% of the dose recovered in the urine). The remaining 15% of abacavir equivalents found in the urine are minor metabolites, each less than 2% of the total dose. Faecal elimination accounts for about 16% of the dose. The terminal elimination half-life of abacavir is approximately 1.5 hours. The antiviral effect of abacavir is due to its intracellular anabolite, carbovir-triphosphate (CBV-TP). When assessed by validated high-performance liquid chromatography electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry, CBV-TP has been shown to have a long elimination half-life (>20 hours), supporting once-daily dosing. The mean CBV-TP trough concentrations do not differ following abacavir 600-mg once-daily and 300-mg twice-daily regimens. Limited data are available for abacavir in subjects with renal dysfunction or hepatic impairment. Abacavir pharmacokinetics in HIV-infected subjects with end-stage renal disease were found to be no different from those observed in healthy adults; this finding was consistent with the kidney being a minor route of abacavir elimination. A study of abacavir pharmacokinetics in hepatically impaired adults (Child-Pugh score of 5-6) showed that the abacavir area under the plasma concentration-time curve and elimination half-life were 89% and 58% greater, respectively, suggesting that the daily dose of abacavir should be reduced in patients with mild hepatic impairment (Child-Pugh score of 5-6). Abacavir pharmacokinetics have not been studied in patients with higher Child-Pugh scores. Abacavir is not significantly metabolized by cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes, nor does it inhibit these enzymes. Therefore, clinically significant drug interactions between abacavir and drugs metabolized by CYP enzymes are unlikely. The potential for drug interactions is no different when abacavir is used as a once-daily regimen versus a twice-daily regimen. No clinically significant drug interactions have been observed between recommended doses of abacavir and lamivudine, zidovudine, alcohol (ethanol) or methadone.
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PMID:A review of the pharmacokinetics of abacavir. 1847 71

It was recently shown that, as in yeast, alcohols selectively increase the hemolytic properties of certain staphylococci strains. This phenomenon has been called 'microbial alcohol-conferred hemolysis'(MACH). Here we present the changes in gene expression by Staphylococcus aureus 8325-4, in response to ethanol. Ethanol upregulated the expression of multiple toxins and increase the pathogen potential of S. aureus strain 8325-4. Ethanol also increased the level of genes considered necessary for production and viability of biofilm, such as: icaAD, sdrDE, pyr, and ure. Increased urease activity appeared to be an important factor in the ethanol response along with macromolecule repair mechanisms. Oxidative-stress responses, such as increased expression of sodA1, sodA2 and upregulation of zinc-containing alcohol dehydrogenase, alcohol-acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (adhE) and two aldehyde dehydrogenases (aldA1, aldA2), which can generate more reducing power, were also induced. Upregulation of fatty acid metabolism appears to be important in enabling the bacteria to handle excess amounts of ethanol which ultimately may lead to synthesis of lytic lypids. The patterns of regulation were confirmed by quantitive reverse transcriptase PCR (QRT-PCR). These results, taken together, suggest that exposure to ethanol increases pathogenic traits and induce oxidative-stress responses.
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PMID:Global gene expression in Staphylococcus aureus following exposure to alcohol. 1990 May 30

Telomerase is a particular reverse transcriptase that not only synthesizes and maintains the telomere but also promotes the proliferation of resting cells and prevents cellular senescence. The advantages of the Sleeping Beauty transposon system include prolonged transgene expression without eliciting an immunogenic response, no possibility of RCV and ease of construction. Tissue-specific therapeutic gene expression is extremely important in gene therapy, because non-specific expression can cause an immune response of the transduced cells that can severely limit the stability of the transgene. The SB system containing the telomerase gene controlled by two chimeric transthyretin (TTR) gene promoters/enhancers, the human alcohol dehydrogenase gene promoter (ADHp), and the SV40 viral enhancer (SV40VE) was constructed in order to activate hepatocyte cell growth. The higher expression was achieved using these elements and FACS analysis showed that this system was effective in hepatocyte targeted gene therapy. Our new SB mediated telomerase delivery system for hepatocytes can be used in human gene therapy applications.
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PMID:Development of a Sleeping Beauty-based telomerase gene delivery system for hepatocytes. 2130 4


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