Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound
Pivot Concepts: Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound   Target Concepts: Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound

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Query: EC:2.7.12.2 (MEK)
18,161 document(s) hit in 31,850,051 MEDLINE articles (0.00 seconds)

Although the health benefits of dietary antioxidants have been extensively studied, their potential negative effects remain unclear. L-Ascorbic acid 6-palmitate (AAP), a synthetic derivative of ascorbic acid (AA), is widely used as an antioxidant and preservative in foods, vitamins, drugs, and cosmetics. Previously, we found that AA exerted an antitumor effect by protecting inhibition of gap-junctional intercellular communication (GJIC), which is closely associated with tumor progression. In this study, we examined whether AAP, an amphipathic derivative of AA, has chemopreventive effects using a GJIC model. AAP and AA exhibited dose-dependent free radical-scavenging activities and inhibited hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2))-induced intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in normal rat liver epithelial cells. Unexpectedly, however, AAP did not protect against the inhibition of GJIC induced by H(2)O(2); instead, it inhibited GJIC synergistically with H(2)O(2). AAP inhibited GJIC in a dose-dependent and reversible manner. This inhibitory effect was not due to the conjugated lipid structure of AAP, as treatment with palmitic acid alone failed to inhibit GJIC under the same conditions. The inhibition of GJIC by AAP was restored in the presence of mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) kinase (MEK) inhibitor U0126, but not in the presence of other signal inhibitors and antioxidant (PKC inhibitors, EGFR inhibitor, NADPH oxidase inhibitor, catalase, vitamin E, or AA), indicating the critical involvement of MEK signaling in the GJIC inhibitory activity of AAP. Phosphorylation of ERK and connexin 43 (Cx43) was observed following AAP treatment, and this was reversed by U0126. These results suggest that the AAP-induced inhibition of GJIC is mediated by the phosphorylation of Cx43 via activation of the MEK-ERK pathway. Taken together, our results indicate that AAP has a potent carcinogenic effect, and that the influence of dietary antioxidants on carcinogenesis may be paradoxical.
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PMID:Ascorbic acid 6-palmitate suppresses gap-junctional intercellular communication through phosphorylation of connexin 43 via activation of the MEK-ERK pathway. 1902 67

Oxysterols are a family of 27-carbon cholesterol oxidation derivatives that may be absorbed with the diet or originated endogenously. These cholesterol metabolites are now considered to be potentially involved in the initiation and progression of major chronic diseases including atherosclerosis, neurodegenerative processes, diabetes, kidney failure, and ethanol intoxication. Thus we deemed it of interest to comprehensively analyze the actual relevance of oxysterols, acting through up-regulation of inflammation, apoptosis and fibrosis, to human pathology from cell signaling to disease expression; we also review the available literature on related therapeutic prospects. Oxysterols of pathophysiologic relevance generally possess a strong pro-oxidant effect, chiefly since they activate NAD(P)H oxidases. Further, stimulation of the MEK/ERK signaling pathway appears to be a common feature of the biochemical effects of this class of compounds. Selective metabolic inhibitors of NAD(P)H oxidase and the MAPK pathway might quench or even prevent the cytotoxic effects of pathological accumulation of cholesterol oxides in cells and tissues. The marked reduction of plasma oxysterols reported for statin-based therapy is interesting: it has been associated with a lower incidence and prevalence of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and vascular dementia. Quenching reactive oxygen species' generation seems the likely mechanism exploited by statins against AD incidence and development; intervention with antioxidants might thus also be re-considered as regards molecular "integrated" prevention and possible therapy of human "multifactorial" disease processes.
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PMID:Cholesterol oxidation products and disease: an emerging topic of interest in medicinal chemistry. 1919 32

To determine whether macrophage differentiation involves increased uptake of vitamin C, or ascorbic acid, we assessed the expression and function of its transporter SVCT2 during phorbol ester-induced differentiation of human-derived THP-1 monocytes. Induction of THP-1 monocyte differentiation by phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) markedly increased SVCT2 mRNA, protein, and function. When ascorbate was present during PMA-induced differentiation, the increase in SVCT2 protein expression was inhibited, but differentiation was enhanced. PMA-induced SVCT2 protein expression was blocked by inhibitors of protein kinase C (PKC), with most of the affect due to the PKCbetaI and betaII isoforms. Activation of MEK/ERK was sustained up to 48 h after PMA treatment, and the inhibitors completely blocked PMA-stimulated SVCT2 protein expression, indicating an exclusive role for the classical MAP kinase pathway. However, inhibitors of NF-kappaB activation, NADPH oxidase inhibitors, and several antioxidants also partially prevented SVCT2 induction, suggesting diverse distal routes for control of SVCT2 transcription. Both known promoters for the SVCT2 were involved in these effects. In conclusion, PMA-induced monocyte-macrophage differentiation is enhanced by ascorbate and associated with increased expression and function of the SVCT2 protein through a pathway involving sustained activation of PKCbetaI/II, MAP kinase, NADPH oxidase, and NF-kappaB.
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PMID:Macrophage differentiation increases expression of the ascorbate transporter (SVCT2). 1923 38

Up-regulation of cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2) by cigarette smoke extract (CSE) may play a critical role in airway inflammatory diseases. However, the mechanisms underlying CSE-induced cPLA2 expression in human tracheal smooth muscle cells (HTSMCs) remain unknown. CSE induced cPLA2 protein and mRNA expression, and ROS generation was attenuated by pretreatment with a reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenger (N-acetylcysteine), or inhibitors of NADPH oxidase (diphenyleneiodonium chloride, apocynin) and transfection with p47phox siRNA, suggesting that CSE-induced cPLA2 expression was mediated through NADPH oxidase activation and ROS production in HTSMCs. Furthermore, CSE-induced cPLA2 expression was attenuated by pretreatment with the inhibitors of MEK1/2 (U0126), p38 MAPK (SB202190), and JNK (SP600125), which were further confirmed by transfection with siRNAs of JNK1, p42, and p38 to down-regulate the expression of respective proteins and reduce cPLA2 expression. Induction of cPLA2 by CSE was attenuated by selective inhibitors of NF-kappaB (helenalin) and AP-1 (curcumin). Moreover, promoter assays revealed that increases of cPLA2, NF-kappaB, and AP-1 luciferase activities stimulated by CSE were attenuated by these inhibitors. These results suggest that in HTSMCs, CSE induced NADPH oxidase activation leading to phosphorylation of p42/p44 MAPK, p38 MAPK, and JNK. These reactions induced nuclear transcription NF-kappaB and AP-1 activities which were essential for CSE-induced cPLA2 gene expression.
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PMID:Cigarette smoke extract induces cytosolic phospholipase A2 expression via NADPH oxidase, MAPKs, AP-1, and NF-kappaB in human tracheal smooth muscle cells. 1928 Jul 14

Aldosterone (Aldo) stimulates glomerular mesangial cell (MC) proliferation, in part, through an ERK1/2-dependent pathway. In this study, we examined whether Aldo activation of ERK1/2 in MC is mediated through redox-dependent EGF receptor (EGFR) transactivation, as well as the involvement of other signaling mechanisms in Aldo-induced MC proliferation. Aldo increased human MC proliferation, as determined by [(3)H]thymidine incorporation and cell counts. This increase in proliferation was blocked by inhibition of the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR). Continuing our observations downstream in the signaling pathway, we examined the ability of Aldo to activate both the Ras/MAPK and the PI3K signaling pathways. Aldo increased Ki-RasA and Ki-RasA:GTP levels, and sequentially phosphorylated c-Raf, MAPK kinase (MEK1/2), and ERK1/2. Ki-RasA small interfering RNA (siRNA), the c-Raf inhibitor GW5074, and the MEK1/2 inhibitor PD98059 reduced Aldo-induced cell proliferation by approximately 65%. Aldo also increased phosphorylation of PI3K, Akt, the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), and the 70-kDa ribosomal S6 kinase (p70S6K1). Inhibition of the PI3K pathways by the selective PI3K inhibitor LY 294002, an Akt inhibitor, or the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin reduced cell proliferation by 51%. Combining LY 294002 and PD98059 completely blocked Aldo-induced MC proliferation. Next, we confirmed that Aldo exerts its effect on MAPK and PI3K activation, as well as on cell proliferation, by activating the EGFR. Pretreatment with the EGFR antagonist AG1478 inhibited MC proliferation, as well as the activation of Ras/MAPK and PI3K/Akt, suggesting that Ras/MAPK and PI3K/Akt activation occur downstream of EGFR activation. Finally, we examined the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in Aldo-induced transactivation of the EGFR. Aldo-induced ROS were predominantly generated by mitochondria. Pretreatment with the antioxidant N-acetyl-l-cysteine, catalase, SOD, mitochondrial respiratory chain complex I inhibitor rotenone (Rot), NADPH oxidase inhibitor apocynin, and DPI significantly inhibited Aldo-stimulated MC proliferation as well as EGFR transactivation. However, Rot reduced MC proliferation more potently than apocynin and DPI. In conclusion, Aldo stimulated cell proliferation through MR-mediated, redox-sensitive EGFR transactivation, which was dependent on the Ki-RasA/c-Raf/MEK/ERK and PI3K/Akt/mTOR/p70S6K1 signaling pathways in human MCs.
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PMID:Aldosterone-induced mesangial cell proliferation is mediated by EGF receptor transactivation. 1933 32

20-HETE increases the expression of VEGF in human dermal microvascular endothelial cells (ECs). Since VEGF is regulated by hypoxia inducible factor (HIF)-1, we studied whether 20-HETE also upregulates HIF-1alpha using the stable 20-HETE analog 20-hydroxyeicosa-5(Z),14(Z)dienoic acid (WIT003; 1-10 microM) and found that it induced a marked increase in HIF-1alpha protein levels. The increases in VEGF after the addition of WIT003 preceded the changes in HIF-1alpha, and the increases in HIF-1alpha were prevented by a VEGF neutralizing antibody. This suggests that 20-HETE first causes increases in VEGF, which then, in turn, cause the upregulation of HIF-1alpha. Stimulation with exogenously added VEGF also led to an upregulation of HIF-1alpha. Incubation with the MEK1/ERK1/2 inhibitor U-0126 (10 microM) completely abolished the increases in VEGF and thus HIF-1alpha, suggesting the involvement of ERK1/2 activation. The addition of WIT003 resulted in a rapid and sustained increase in superoxide formation. When WIT003 was added in the presence of the nitric oxide (NO) synthase (NOS) inhibitor N-nitro-L-arginine, no changes in superoxide, VEGF, or HIF-1alpha were observed. This suggests that NOS is responsible for the early changes in superoxide induced by WIT003. Furthermore, WIT003 induced the expression of the NADPH oxidase subunit p47(phox) in ECs before the increases in HIF-1alpha. Incubation with polyethylene glycol-superoxide dismutase (400 U/ml), apocynin (100 microM), diphenylene iodonium (10 microM), or p47(phox) downregulation with small interfering (si)RNA all inhibited the increases in HIF-1alpha expression. This indicates that the early changes in superoxide lead to VEGF increases and thereby NADPH oxidase-dependent superoxide production, which is required for HIF-1alpha upregulation. We also found that the higher HIF-1alpha expression induced by WIT003 was accompanied by higher expression of erythropoietin receptor and angiopoietin-2 proteins. These increases were caused by HIF-1alpha because their levels were markedly decreased by siRNA downregulation of HIF-1alpha. 20-HETE may be a novel nonhypoxic regulator of HIF-1alpha and HIF-1alpha-regulated genes in ECs.
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PMID:20-HETE can act as a nonhypoxic regulator of HIF-1alpha in human microvascular endothelial cells. 1950 54

In maize (Zea mays), abscisic acid (ABA)-induced H(2)O(2) production activates a 46 kDa mitogen-activated protein kinase (p46MAPK), and the activation of p46MAPK also regulates the production of H(2)O(2). However, the mechanism for the regulation of H(2)O(2) production by MAPK in ABA signalling remains to be elucidated. In this study, four reactive oxygen species (ROS)-producing NADPH oxidase (rboh) genes (ZmrbohA-D) were isolated and characterized in maize leaves. ABA treatment induced a biphasic response (phase I and phase II) in the expression of ZmrbohA-D and the activity of NADPH oxidase. Phase II induced by ABA was blocked by pretreatments with two MAPK kinase (MPKKK) inhibitors and two H(2)O(2) scavengers, but phase I was not affected by these inhibitors or scavengers. Treatment with H(2)O(2) alone also only induced phase II, and the induction was arrested by the MAPKK inhibitors. Furthermore, the ABA-activated p46MAPK was partially purified. Using primers corresponding to the sequences of internal tryptic peptides, the p46MAPK gene was cloned. Analysis of the tryptic peptides and the p46MAPK sequence indicate it is the known ZmMPK5. Treatments with ABA and H(2)O(2) led to a significant increase in the activity of ZmMPK5, although ABA treatment only induced a slight increase in the expression of ZmMPK5. The data indicate that H(2)O(2)-activated ZmMPK5 is involved in the activation of phase II in ABA signalling, but not in phase I. The results suggest that there is a positive feedback loop involving NADPH oxidase, H(2)O(2), and ZmMPK5 in ABA signalling.
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PMID:Positive feedback regulation of maize NADPH oxidase by mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade in abscisic acid signalling. 1959 1

Rapid production of nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) has been implicated in the regulation of innate immunity in plants. A potato calcium-dependent protein kinase (StCDPK5) activates an NADPH oxidase StRBOHA to D by direct phosphorylation of N-terminal regions, and heterologous expression of StCDPK5 and StRBOHs in Nicotiana benthamiana results in oxidative burst. The transgenic potato plants that carry a constitutively active StCDPK5 driven by a pathogen-inducible promoter of the potato showed high resistance to late blight pathogen Phytophthora infestans accompanied by HR-like cell death and H(2)O(2) accumulation in the attacked cells. In contrast, these plants showed high susceptibility to early blight necrotrophic pathogen Alternaria solani, suggesting that oxidative burst confers high resistance to biotrophic pathogen, but high susceptibility to necrotrophic pathogen. NO and ROS synergistically function in defense responses. Two MAPK cascades, MEK2-SIPK and cytokinesis-related MEK1-NTF6, are involved in the induction of NbRBOHB gene in N. benthamiana. On the other hand, NO burst is regulated by the MEK2-SIPK cascade. Conditional activation of SIPK in potato plants induces oxidative and NO bursts, and confers resistance to both biotrophic and necrotrophic pathogens, indicating the plants may have obtained during evolution the signaling pathway which regulates both NO and ROS production to adapt to wide-spectrum pathogens.
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PMID:Molecular mechanisms of generation for nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species, and role of the radical burst in plant immunity. 1983 Mar 96

Exposure to cigarette smoke extract (CSE) leads to airway and lung inflammation through an oxidant-antioxidant imbalance. Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) have been shown to play critical roles in respiratory inflammation. Here, we show that COX-2/PGE(2)/IL-6 induction is dependent on Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/NADPH oxidase signaling in human tracheal smooth muscle cells (HTSMCs). CSE induced COX-2 expression in vitro in HTSMCs and in vivo in the airways of mice. CSE also directly caused an increase in TLR4. Moreover, CSE-regulated COX-2, PGE(2), and IL-6 generation was inhibited by pretreatment with TLR4 Ab; inhibitors of c-Src (PP1), NADPH oxidase (diphenylene iodonium chloride and apocynin), p38 MAPK (SB202190), MEK1/2 (U0126), JNK1/2 (SP600125), and NF-kappaB (helenalin); a ROS scavenger (N-acetyl-l-cysteine); and transfection with siRNA of TLR4, MyD88, TRAF6, Src, p47(phox), p38, p42, JNK2, or p65. CSE-induced leukocyte numbers in BAL fluid were also reduced by pretreatment with these inhibitors. Furthermore, CSE induced p47(phox) translocation and TLR4/MyD88/TRAF6 and c-Src/p47(phox) complex formation. We found that PGE(2) enhanced IL-6 production in HTSMCs and leukocyte count in BAL fluid. In addition, treatment with nicotine could induce COX-2, PGE(2), and IL-6 generation in in vivo and in vitro studies. These results demonstrate that CSE-induced ROS generation was mediated through the TLR4/MyD88/TRAF6/c-Src/NADPH oxidase pathway, in turn initiated the activation of MAPKs and NF-kappaB, and ultimately induced COX-2/PGE(2)/IL-6-dependent airway inflammation.
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PMID:Induction of COX-2/PGE(2)/IL-6 is crucial for cigarette smoke extract-induced airway inflammation: Role of TLR4-dependent NADPH oxidase activation. 1989 12

Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is known as an oxidative stress protein that is up-regulated by various stimuli. HO-1 has been shown to protect cells against oxidative damage. Cigarette smoke is a potential inflammatory mediator that causes chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and asthma. In this study, we report that cigarette smoke particle-phase extract (CSPE) is an inducer of HO-1 expression mediated through various signaling pathways in human tracheal smooth muscle cells (HTSMCs). CSPE-induced HO-1 protein, mRNA expression, and promoter activity were attenuated by pretreatment with a ROS scavenger (N-acetyl-l-cysteine) and inhibitors of c-Src (PP1), NADPH oxidase [diphenylene iodonium chloride (DPI) and apocynin (APO)], MEK1/2 (U0126), p38 MAPK (SB202190), and JNK1/2 (SP600125) or transfection with siRNAs for Src, p47(phox), NOX2, p42, p38, JNK2, or NF-E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2). CSPE-stimulated translocation of p47(phox) and Nrf2, ROS production, and NADPH oxidase activity was attenuated by transfection with siRNAs for Src, p47(phox), and NOX2 or pretreatment with PP1, DPI, or APO. Furthermore, CSPE-induced NOX2, c-Src, and p47(phox) complex formation was revealed by immunoprecipitation using an anti-NOX2, anti-p47(phox), or anti-c-Src Ab followed by Western blot against anti-NOX2, anti-p47(phox), or anti-c-Src Abs. These results demonstrate that CSPE-induced ROS generation is mediated through a c-Src/NADPH oxidase/MAPK pathway and in turn initiates the activation of Nrf2 and ultimately induces HO-1 expression in HTSMCs.
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PMID:Cigarette smoke particle-phase extract induces HO-1 expression in human tracheal smooth muscle cells: role of the c-Src/NADPH oxidase/MAPK/Nrf2 signaling pathway. 2018 21


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