Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound
Pivot Concepts: Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound   Target Concepts: Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound

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Query: EC:2.7.11.2 (PDK1)
2,238 document(s) hit in 31,850,051 MEDLINE articles (0.00 seconds)

Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 2 (PDK2) is a prototypical mitochondrial protein kinase that regulates the activity of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex. Recent structural studies have established that PDK2 consists of a catalytic core built of the B and K domains and the relatively long amino and carboxyl tails of unknown function. Here, we show that the carboxy-terminal truncation variants of PDK2 display a greatly diminished capacity for phosphorylation of holo-PDC. This effect is due largely to the inability of the transacetylase component of PDC to promote the phosphorylation reaction catalyzed by the truncated PDK2 variants. Furthermore, the truncated forms of PDK2 bind poorly to the lipoyl-bearing domain(s) provided by the transacetylase component. Taken together, these data strongly suggest that the carboxyl tails of PDK isozymes contribute to the lipoyl-bearing domain-binding site of the kinase molecule. We also show that the carboxyl tails derived from isozymes PDK1, PDK3, and PDK4 are capable of supporting the kinase activity of the kinase core derived from PDK2 as well as binding of the respective PDK2 chimeras to the lipoyl-bearing domain. Furthermore, the chimera carrying the carboxyl tail of PDK3 displays a stronger response to the addition of the transacetylase component along with a better binding to the lipoyl-bearing domain, suggesting that, at least in part, the differences in the amino acid sequences of the carboxyl tails account for the differences between PDK isozymes.
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PMID:The carboxy-terminal tail of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 2 is required for the kinase activity. 1621 81

Pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH), the first component of the human pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, has two isoenzymes, somatic cell-specific PDH1 and testis-specific PDH2 with 87% sequence identity in the alpha subunit of alpha(2) beta(2) PDH. The presence of functional testis-specific PDH2 is important for sperm cells generating nearly all their energy from carbohydrates via pyruvate oxidation. Kinetic and regulatory properties of recombinant human PDH2 and PDH1 were compared in this study. Site-specific phosphorylation/dephosphorylation of the three phosphorylation sites by four PDH kinases (PDK1-4) and two PDH phosphatases (PDP1-2) were investigated by substituting serines with alanine or glutamate in PDHs. PDH2 was found to be very similar to PDH1 as follows: (i) in specific activities and kinetic parameters as determined by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex assay; (ii) in thermostability at 37 degrees C; (iii) in the mechanism of inactivation by phosphorylation of three sites; and (iv) in the phosphorylation of sites 1 and 2 by PDK3. In contrast, the differences for PDH2 were indicated as follows: (i) by a 2.4-fold increase in binding affinity for the PDH-binding domain of dihydrolipoamide acetyltransferase as measured by surface plasmon resonance; (ii) by possible involvement of Ser-264 (site 1) of PDH2 in catalysis as evident by its kinetic behavior; and (iii) by the lower activities of PDK1, PDK2, and PDK4 as well as PDP1 and PDP2 toward PDH2. These differences between PDH2 and PDH1 are less than expected from substitution of 47 amino acids in each PDH2 alpha subunit. The multiple substitutions may have compensated for any drastic alterations in PDH2 structure thereby preserving its kinetic and regulatory characteristics largely similar to that of PDH1.
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PMID:Characterization of testis-specific isoenzyme of human pyruvate dehydrogenase. 1643 77

The activity of the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) is regulated by covalent modification of its E1 component, which is catalyzed by specific pyruvate dehydrogenase kinases (PDKs) and phosphatases. In the liver, PDK2 and PDK4 are the most abundant PDK isoforms, which are responsible for inactivation of PDC when glucose availability is scarce in the body. In the present study, regulatory mechanisms of hepatic PDC were examined before and after the onset of type 2 diabetes mellitus in Otsuka Long-Evans Tokushima Fatty (OLETF) rats, using Long-Evans Tokushima Otsuka (LETO) rats as controls. Plasma glucose and insulin concentrations were at normal levels in rats aged 8 weeks, but were significantly higher in OLETF than in LETO rats aged 25 weeks, indicating insulin resistance in OLETF rats. Plasma free fatty acids (FFAs) were 1.6-fold concentrated, and the liver PDC activity was significantly lower in OLETF than in LETO rats at both ages, suggesting suppression of pyruvate oxidative decarboxylation in OLETF rats before and after the onset of diabetes. Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase activity and abundance of PDK2 and PDK4 proteins, as well as mRNAs, were greater in OLETF rats at both ages. These results suggest that persistently elevated levels of circulating free fatty acid in normal and diabetic OLETF rats play an important role in stimulating PDK2 and PDK4 expression in liver.
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PMID:Increased expression of hepatic pyruvate dehydrogenase kinases 2 and 4 in young and middle-aged Otsuka Long-Evans Tokushima Fatty rats: induction by elevated levels of free fatty acids. 1648 74

In this study, we examined whether the increased availability of lipids in blood resulting from two types of diet manipulation regulated metabolic gene expression in the skeletal muscle of rats. Feeding for 4 wk on an isocaloric-sucrose or a hypercaloric-fat diet increased plasma TAG in the fed condition by increments of 70 and 40%, respectively, and increased fasting insulinemia (approximately 3-fold) compared with a starch diet. The fat diet impaired glucose tolerance and caused obesity, whereas sucrose-fed rats maintained their normal weight. We analyzed the expression of genes that regulate the exogenous FA supply (LPL, FAT/CD36, FATP1), synthesis (ACC1), glucose (GLUT4, GLUT1, HK2, GFAT1, glycogen phosphorylase) or glycerol (glycerol kinase) provision, or substrate choice for oxidation (PDK4) in gastrocnemius and soleus muscles at the end of the glucose tolerance test. LPL, FAT/CD36, FATP1, PDK4, and GLUT4 mRNA as well as glycogen phosphorylase and glycerol kinase activity levels in both muscles were unchanged by the diets. Increased mRNA levels of GLUT1 (1.6- and 2.6-fold, respectively) and GFAT1 (about 1.7-fold) in gastrocnemius, and of ACC1 (about 1.5-fold) in soleus, were found in both the sucrose and fat groups. In the fat group, HK2 mRNA was also higher (1.8-fold) in the gastrocnemius. Both sucrose and saturated-fat diets prompted hyperinsulinemia and hyperlipemia in rats. These metabolic disturbances did not alter the expression of LPL, FAT/CD36, FATP1, PDK4, and GLUT4 genes or glycogen phosphorylase and glycerol kinase activity levels in either analyzed muscle. Instead, they were linked to the coordinated upregulation in gastrocnemius of genes that govern glucose uptake and the hexosamine pathway, namely, GLUT1 and GFAT1, which might contribute to insulin resistance.
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PMID:Effect of sucrose and saturated-fat diets on mRNA levels of genes limiting muscle fatty acid and glucose supply in rats. 1655 72

Pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH) converts pyruvate to acetyl-CoA, links glycolysis to the Krebs cycle, and plays an important role in glucose metabolism and insulin secretion in pancreatic beta cells. In beta cells from obese and Type 2 diabetic animals, PDH activity is significantly reduced. PDH is negatively regulated by multiple pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK) isotypes (PDK subtypes 1-4). However, we do not know whether fatty acids or high glucose modulate PDKs in islets. To test this we determined PDH and PDK activities and PDK gene and protein expression in C57BL/6 mouse islets. Both high palmitate and high glucose reduced active PDH activity and increased PDK activity. The gene and protein for PDK3 were not expressed in islets. Palmitate up-regulated mRNA expression of PDK1 (2.9-fold), PDK2 (1.9-fold), and PDK4 (3.1-fold). High glucose increased PDK1 (1.8-fold) and PDK2 (2.7-fold) mRNA expression but reduced PDK4 mRNA expression by 40 percent in cultured islets. Changed PDK expression was confirmed by Western blotting. These results demonstrate that in islet cells both fat and glucose regulate PDK gene and protein expression and indicate that hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia contribute to the decline in diabetic islet PDH activity by increasing mRNA and protein expression of PDK.
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PMID:Regulation of PDK mRNA by high fatty acid and glucose in pancreatic islets. 1663 12

We previously showed that insulin has a profound effect to suppress pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK) 4 expression in rat skeletal muscle. In the present study, we examined whether insulin's effect on PDK4 expression is impaired in acute insulin-resistant states and, if so, whether this change is accompanied by decreased insulin's effects to stimulate Akt and forkhead box class O (FOXO) 1 phosphorylation. To induce insulin resistance, conscious overnight-fasted rats received a constant infusion of Intralipid or lactate for 5 h, while a control group received saline infusion. Following the initial infusions, each group received saline or insulin infusion (n = 6 or 7 each) for an additional 5 h, while saline, Intralipid, or lactate infusion was continued. Plasma glucose was clamped at basal levels during the insulin infusion. Compared with the control group, Intralipid and lactate infusions decreased glucose infusion rates required to clamp plasma glucose by approximately 60% (P < 0.01), confirming the induction of insulin resistance. Insulin's ability to suppress PDK4 mRNA level was impaired in skeletal muscle with Intralipid and lactate infusions, resulting in two- to threefold higher PDK4 mRNA levels with insulin (P < 0.05). Insulin stimulation of Akt and FOXO1 phosphorylation was also significantly decreased with Intralipid and lactate infusions. These data suggest that insulin's effect to suppress PDK4 gene expression in skeletal muscle is impaired in insulin-resistant states, and this may be due to impaired insulin signaling for stimulation of Akt and FOXO1 phosphorylation. Impaired insulin's effect to suppress PDK4 expression may explain the association between PDK4 overexpression and insulin resistance in skeletal muscle.
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PMID:Insulin regulation of skeletal muscle PDK4 mRNA expression is impaired in acute insulin-resistant states. 1687 95

The pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) catalyzes the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA in mitochondria and is a key regulatory enzyme in the oxidation of glucose to acetyl-CoA. Phosphorylation of PDC by the pyruvate dehydrogenase kinases (PDK2 and PDK4) inhibits PDC activity. Expression of the PDK genes is elevated in diabetes, leading to the decreased oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl-CoA. In these studies we have investigated the transcriptional regulation of the PDK4 gene by the estrogen-related receptors (ERRalpha and ERRgamma). The ERRs are orphan nuclear receptors whose physiological roles include the induction of fatty acid oxidation in heart and muscle. Previously, we found that the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator (PGC-1alpha) stimulates the expression of PDK4. Here we report that ERRalpha and ERRgamma stimulate the PDK4 gene in hepatoma cells, suggesting a novel role for ERRs in controlling pyruvate metabolism. In addition, both ERR isoforms recruit PGC-1alpha to the PDK4 promoter. Insulin, which decreases the expression of the PDK4 gene, inhibits the induction of PDK4 by ERRalpha and ERRgamma. The forkhead transcription factor (FoxO1) binds the PDK4 gene and contributes to the induction of PDK4 by ERRs and PGC-1alpha. Insulin suppresses PDK4 expression in part through the dissociation of FoxO1 and PGC-1alpha from the PDK4 promoter. Our data demonstrate a key role for the ERRs in the induction of hepatic PDK4 gene expression.
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PMID:Estrogen-related receptors stimulate pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase isoform 4 gene expression. 1707 27

The mechanisms that control mammalian pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) activity include its phosphorylation (inactivation) by a family of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinases (PDKs 1 - 4). Here we review new developments in the regulation of the activities and expression of the PDKs, in particular PDK2 and PDK4, in relation to glucose and lipid homeostasis. This review describes recent advances relating to the acute and long-term modes of regulation of the PDKs, with particular emphasis on the regulatory roles of nuclear receptors including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) alpha and Liver X receptor (LXR), PPAR gamma coactivator alpha (PGC-1alpha) and insulin, and the impact of changes in PDK activity and expression in glucose and lipid homeostasis. Since PDK4 may assist in lipid clearance when there is an imbalance between lipid delivery and oxidation, it may represent an attractive target for interventions aimed at rectifying abnormal lipid as well as glucose homeostasis in disease states.
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PMID:Mechanisms underlying regulation of the expression and activities of the mammalian pyruvate dehydrogenase kinases. 1713 39

Endurance exercise transiently increases the mRNA of key regulatory proteins involved in skeletal muscle metabolism. During prolonged exercise and subsequent recovery, circulating plasma fatty acid (FA) concentrations are elevated. The present study therefore aimed to determine the sensitivity of key metabolic genes to FA exposure, assessed in vitro using L6 myocytes and secondly, to measure the expression of these same set of genes in vivo, following a single exercise bout when the post-exercise rise in plasma FA is abolished by acipimox. Initial studies using L6 myotubes demonstrated dose responsive sensitivity for both PDK4 and PGC-1alpha mRNA to acute FA exposure in vitro. Nine active males performed two trials consisting of 2 h exercise, followed by 2 h of recovery. In one trial, plasma FA availability was reduced by the administration of acipimox (LFA), a pharmacological inhibitor of adipose tissue lipolysis, and in the second trial a placebo was provided (CON). During the exercise bout and during recovery, the rise in plasma FA and glycerol was abolished by acipimox treatment. Following exercise the mRNA abundance of PDK4 and PGC-1alpha were elevated and unaffected by either acipimox or placebo. Further analysis of skeletal muscle gene expression demonstrated that the CPT I gene was suppressed in both trials, whilst UCP-3 gene was only modestly regulated by exercise alone. Acipimox ingestion did not alter the response for both CPT I and UCP-3. Thus, this study demonstrates that the normal increase in circulating concentrations of FA during the later stages of exercise and subsequent recovery is not required to induce skeletal muscle mRNA expression of several proteins involved in regulating substrate metabolism.
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PMID:Reduced plasma free fatty acid availability during exercise: effect on gene expression. 1718 95

The fraction of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC) in the active form is reduced by the activities of dedicated PD kinase isozymes (PDK1, PDK2, PDK3 and PDK4). Via binding to the inner lipoyl domain (L2) of the dihydrolipoyl acetyltransferase (E2 60mer), PDK rapidly access their E2-bound PD substrate. The E2-enhanced activity of the widely distributed PDK2 is limited by dissociation of ADP from its C-terminal catalytic domain, and this is further slowed by pyruvate binding to the N-terminal regulatory (R) domain. Via the reverse of the PDC reaction, NADH and acetyl-CoA reductively acetylate lipoyl group of L2, which binds to the R domain and stimulates PDK2 activity by speeding up ADP dissociation. Activation of PDC by synthetic PDK inhibitors binding at the pyruvate or lipoyl binding sites decreased damage during heart ischemia and lowered blood glucose in insulin-resistant animals. PDC activation also triggers apoptosis in cancer cells that selectively convert glucose to lactate.
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PMID:Pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase regulatory mechanisms and inhibition in treating diabetes, heart ischemia, and cancer. 1731 Feb 82


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