Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound
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Query: EC:2.7.11.13 (protein kinase C)
 49,245 document(s) hit in 31,850,051 MEDLINE articles (0.00 seconds)

Diabetes is characterized by hyperglycemia, a relative lack of insulin, and an inclination to vascular disease and neuropathy. The link between diabetes and vascular disease is not understood, but autonomic dysfunction could partly account for alterations in reactivity of diabetic blood vessels to neurotransmitters and circulating hormones. Changes in local control of vascular tone, such as imbalance in production of relaxing and contracting factors by the endothelium, may be related to the initiation and maintenance of abnormal vascular reactivity characteristically seen in diabetic vascular complications. The emphasis is to discuss functional changes of blood vessel adrenergic neuroeffector mechanisms and endothelial cell dysfunction, together with the complex interrelationship of cyclooxygenase catalysis, protein kinase C activity, sodium-potassium ATPase activity, and flux through the polyol pathway. This review focuses on the common mechanisms by which hyperglycemia causes changes in vascular function.
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PMID:Diabetes and vascular disease: functional alterations in adrenergic neurotransmission and endothelium. 774 65

The interaction of Pb and Ca with cellular sites depends upon the concentration of free ions present (Pb2+, Ca2+). The ability of Pb2+ to form complexes with simple anions such as Cl- and OH-, the formation of precipitates such as Pb(OH)2 and Pb3(PO4)2, and the ubiquity of Pb as a contaminant in laboratory reagents implies that particular care is needed in order to define the Pb2+ concentration of a solution. The free Pb2+ concentration may be controlled with Pb2+ buffers, and measured with a Pb2+ selective electrode, a fluorescent dye, fura-2, or an NMR indicator, 19F-BAPTA. Pb(2+)-Ca2+ interactions occur in three main situations at the cellular level. Pb2+ and Ca2+ compete at the plasma membrane for transport systems which effect their entry or exit, such as Ca2+ channels, and the Ca2+ pump. Intracellular Ca2+ is buffered to around 10(-7) M by proteins, endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria. Pb2+ disturbs intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis. Ca(2+)-Pb2+ interactions at mitochondria have been described, but other mechanisms have not yet been explored. Increases in intracellular [Ca2+] act as a signal (or second messenger). Pb2+ interacts with a number of Ca(2+)-dependent effector mechanisms, such as calmodulin (a Ca2+ receptor protein which couples to several enzymes e.g., phosphodiesterase, protein kinases), protein kinase C, Ca(2+)-dependent K+ channels in the plasma membrane and neurotransmitter release. The actions of Pb2+ on neurotransmission may be relevant to Pb(2+)-induced human neuropathy and encephalopathy.
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PMID:Lead-calcium interactions in cellular lead toxicity. 824 14

Defective tissue perfusion and nitric oxide production and altered myo-inositol metabolism and protein kinase C activation have been invoked in the pathogenesis of diabetic complications including neuropathy. The precise cellular compartmentalization and mechanistic interrelationships of these abnormalities remain obscure, and nitric oxide possesses both neurotransmitter and vasodilator activity. Therefore the effects of ambient glucose and myo-inositol on nitric oxide-dependent cGMP production and protein kinase C activity were studied in SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells, a cell culture model for peripheral cholinergic neurons. D-Glucose lowered cellular myo-inositol content, phosphatidylinositol synthesis, and phosphorylation of an endogenous protein kinase C substrate, and specifically reduced nitric oxide-dependent cGMP production a time- and dose-dependent manner with an apparent IC50 of approximately 30 mM. The near maximal decrease in cGMP induced by 50 mM D-glucose was corrected by the addition of protein kinase C agonists or 500 microM myo-inositol to the culture medium, and was reproduced by protein kinase C inhibition or downregulation, or by myo-inositol deficient medium. Sodium nitroprusside increased cGMP in a dose-dependent fashion, with low concentrations (1 microM) counteracting the effects of 50 mM D-glucose or protein kinase C inhibition. The demonstration that elevated D-glucose diminishes basal nitric oxide-dependent cGMP production by myo-inositol depletion and protein kinase C inhibition in peripheral cholinergic neurons provides a potential metabolic basis for impaired nitric oxide production, nerve blood flow, and nerve impulse conduction in diabetes.
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PMID:Modulation of basal nitric oxide-dependent cyclic-GMP production by ambient glucose, myo-inositol, and protein kinase C in SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells. 860 30

The primary etiologic factor in diabetic glomerulosclerosis appears to be an overproduction of transforming growth factor-beta by mesangial cells, which in turn reflects a hyperglycemically mediated overactivation of protein kinase C (PKC) throughout the glomerulus. Membrane-active antioxidants, fish oil, and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors can act to down-regulate glomerular PKC activity, via a variety of mechanisms that may include activation of diacylglycerol kinase and suppression of phosphatidate phosphohydrolase, support of endothelial nitric oxide and heparan sulfate production, inhibition of thromboxane and angiotensin synthesis/activity, and correction of glomerular hypertension. The beneficial impact of these measures on vascular endothelial function may be of more general utility in the prevention of diabetic complications such as retinopathy, neuropathy, and atherosclerosis. Adjunctive use of gamma-linolenic acid is indicated for prevention of neuropathy, and it is conceivable that bioactive chromium will have protective activity not solely attributable to improved glycemic control. Re-establishing euglycemia must clearly remain the core strategy for preventing diabetic complications, but when glycemic control remains suboptimal, practical, safe measures are at hand for decreasing risk.
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PMID:A central role for protein kinase C overactivity in diabetic glomerulosclerosis: implications for prevention with antioxidants, fish oil, and ACE inhibitors. 957 71

Impaired microcirculatory perfusion appears to be crucial to the pathogenesis of both neuropathy and retinopathy in diabetics. This in turn reflects a hyperglycemically mediated perturbation of vascular endothelial function that entails overactivation of protein kinase C, reduced availability of nitric oxide, increased production of superoxide and endothelin, impaired insulin function, diminished synthesis of prostacyclin/PGE1, and increased activation and endothelial adherence of leukocytes. These dysfunctions may be addressed with a supplementation program that includes high-dose antioxidants, fish oil, gamma-linolenic acid, chromium, arginine, carnitine, and ginkgolides. Pharmaceuticals likely to be of benefit in this regard include pentoxifylline, probucol, replacement estrogens, and inhibitors of angiotensin converting enzyme and aldose reductase.
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PMID:Nitric oxide deficiency, leukocyte activation, and resultant ischemia are crucial to the pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy/neuropathy--preventive potential of antioxidants, essential fatty acids, chromium, ginkgolides, and pentoxifylline. 968 24

Diabetic microangiopathy has been implicated as a fundamental feature of the pathological complications of diabetes including retinopathy, neuropathy, and diabetic foot ulceration. However, previous studies devoted to examining the deleterious effects of elevated glucose on the endothelium have been performed largely in primary cultured cells of macrovessel origin. Difficulty in the harvesting and maintenance of microvascular endothelial cells in culture have hindered the study of this relevant population. Therefore, the objective of this study was to characterize the effect of elevated glucose on the proliferation and involved signaling pathways of an immortalized human dermal microvascular endothelial cell line (HMEC-1) that possess similar characteristics to their in vivo counterparts. Human dermal microvascular endothelial cells (HMEC-1) were grown in the presence of normal (5 mM) or high D-glucose (20 mM) for 14 days. The proliferative response of HMEC-1 was compared under these conditions as well as the cAMP and PKC pathways by in vitro assays. Elevated glucose significantly inhibited (P < 0.05) HMEC-1 proliferation after 7, 10, and 14 days. This effect was not mimicked by 20 mM mannitol. The antiproliferative effect was more pronounced with longer exposure (1-14 days) to elevated glucose and was irreversible 4 days after a 10-day exposure. The antiproliferative effect was partially reversed in the presence of a PKA inhibitor, Rp-cAMP (10-50 microM), and/or a PKC inhibitor, Calphostin C (10 nM). HMEC-1 exposed to elevated glucose (20 mM) for 14 days caused an increase in cyclic AMP accumulation, PKA, and PKC activity but was not associated with the activation of downstream events such as CRE and AP-1 binding activity. These data support the hypothesis that HMEC-1 is a suitable model to study the deleterious effects of elevated glucose on microvascular endothelial cells. Continued studies with HMEC-1 may prove advantageous in delineation of the molecular pathophysiology associated with diabetic microangiopathy.
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PMID:Antiproliferative effect of elevated glucose in human microvascular endothelial cells. 982 95

The contribution of diacylglycerol (DAG) and protein kinase C (PKC) to diabetic complications has been the subject of debate. In vascular tissues, diabetes increases DAG content, which activates PKC and causes abnormal tissue perfusion. Reduced nerve blood flow has been implicated in the development of neuropathy. However, nerve DAG/PKC activity is not increased and may even be reduced by diabetes, which has also been implicated in neuropathy. The aim was to test whether 2 weeks of treatment with cremophor, an agent that complexes DAG and prevents PKC activation, could correct nerve-conduction velocity (NCV) deficits in rats with 6 weeks of untreated diabetes, as predicted on a vascular hypothesis, or whether this worsened the deficits, as predicted for a direct effect on nerve fibers. Diabetes caused 17.9 +/- 0.9% (+/- SEM) and 15.5 +/- 1.6% reductions in sciatic motor and saphenous sensory NCV, respectively, that were largely (79.6 +/- 6.3% and 57.8 +/- 11.5%) corrected by 100 mg x kg(-1) x day(-1) cremophor treatment. The effects of cremophor on motor and sensory NCV were completely attenuated by co-treatment with the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor, N(G)-nitro-l-arginine. In contrast, co-treatment with the cyclooxygenase inhibitor, flurbiprofen, had no effect on NCV. Sciatic nutritive and total endoneurial perfusion were 49.7 +/- 3.4% and 51.8 +/- 4.2% reduced by diabetes, respectively, and these deficits were 69.5 +/- 7.4% and 79.0 +/- 11.6% corrected by cremophor treatment. Thus the data suggest that an increased DAG/PKC vascular mechanism, perhaps linked to the nitric oxide system, contributes to the etiology of diabetic nerve dysfunction.
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PMID:Effects of the diacylglycerol complexing agent, cremophor, on nerve-conduction velocity and perfusion in diabetic rats. 1023 3

The damaging effects of glucose on the cells which contribute to the development of diabetic complications are ill-understood. There are three major hypotheses - the sorbitol pathway, non-enzymatic glycation of proteins and increased oxidative stress - and many examples illustrate inter-connections between the three. It is suggested that these pathways, together with other biochemical anomalies arising from hyperglycaemia, can synergise by sharing the capacity to activate mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAP kinases) and that these enzymes in actual fact form glucose transducers. The more recent hypothesis, namely that activation of a specific isoform of protein kinase C (PKC) underpin damaging changes in retinopathy and neuropathy, can also be related because protein kinase C is an effective activator of mitogen-activated protein kinases. These latter kinases phosphorylate transcription factors, which in turn alter the balance of gene expression. In this way they can alter cellular phenotype, promote division or increase production of extracellular material. In short, mitogen-activated protein kinases have the capacity to trigger all the cellular events necessary for the development of diabetic nephropathy, retinopathy and neuropathy and it is suggested that their pharmacological modulation might provide therapeutic control of these conditions. [Diabetologia (1999) 42: 1271-1281]
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PMID:Mitogen-activated protein kinases as glucose transducers for diabetic complications. 1055 Apr 10

Enhanced actions or levels of endothelin-1 (ET-1), a potent vasoconstrictor, have been associated with decreased blood flow in the retina and peripheral nerves of diabetic animals and may be related to the development of pathologies in these tissues. Hyperglycemia has been postulated to increase ET-1 secretion in endothelial cells. We have characterized the mechanism by which elevation of glucose is increasing ET-1 mRNA expression in capillary bovine retinal endothelial cells (BREC) and bovine retinal pericytes (BRPC). Elevation of glucose, but not mannitol, from 5.5 to 25 mmol/l for 3 days increased membranous protein kinase C (PKC) activities and ET-1 mRNA in parallel levels by 2-fold in BREC and BRPC. These effects were reversed by decreasing glucose levels to 5.5 mmol/l for an additional 2 days. Glucose-induced ET-1 overexpression was inhibited by a general PKC inhibitor, GF109203X, and a mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase inhibitor, PD98059, but not by wortmannin, a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitor. By immunoblot analysis, PKC-beta2 and -delta isoforms in BREC were significantly increased relative to other isoforms in the membranous fractions when glucose level was increased. Overexpression of PKC-beta1 and -delta isoforms but not PKC-zeta isoform by adenovirus vectors containing the respective cDNA enhanced in parallel PKC activities, proteins, and basal and glucose-induced ET-1 mRNA expression by at least 2-fold. These results showed that enhanced ET-1 expression induced by hyperglycemia in diabetes is partly due to activation of PKC-beta and -delta isoforms, suggesting that inhibition of these PKC isoforms may prevent early changes in diabetic retinopathy and neuropathy.
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PMID:Induction of endothelin-1 expression by glucose: an effect of protein kinase C activation. 1090 84

Diabetes mellitus produces a state of chronic hyperglycemia which in turn leads to the development of severe complications including retinopathy, nephropathy, neuropathy, and atherosclerosis. Many different mechanisms have been put forward to attempt to explain how glucose elevations can damage these various organ systems. Protein kinase C activation is one of the sequelae of hyperglycemia and is thought to play a role in the development of diabetic complications. There are multiple mechanisms for its activation in the diabetic state and multiple downstream effects attributable to that activation. The role of protein kinase C activation in the development of the above-mentioned complications of diabetes is discussed in this chapter. In addition, the potential use of isoform-specific inhibitors of protein kinase C for the treatment of diabetic complications is proposed.
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PMID:The role of protein kinase C in the development of the complications of diabetes. 1103 24


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