Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound
Pivot Concepts: Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound   Target Concepts: Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound

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Query: EC:2.7.11.1 (protein kinase)
81,284 document(s) hit in 31,850,051 MEDLINE articles (0.00 seconds)

At the heart of the canonical Wnt signaling cascade, adenomatous polyposis coli (APC), axin, and GSK3 constitute the so-called destruction complex, which controls the stability of beta-catenin. It is generally believed that four conserved Ser/Thr residues in the N terminus of beta-catenin are the pivotal targets for the constitutively active serine kinase GSK3. In cells that do not receive Wnt signals, glycogen synthase kinase (GSK) is presumed to phosphorylate beta-catenin, thus marking the latter for proteasomal degradation. Wnt signaling inhibits GSK3 activity. As a consequence, beta-catenin would no longer be phosphorylated and accumulate to form nuclear complexes with TCF/LEF factors. Although mutations in or near the N-terminal Ser/Thr residues stabilize beta-catenin in several types of cancer, the hypothesis that Wnt signaling controls phosphorylation of these residues remains unproven. We have generated a monoclonal antibody that recognizes an epitope containing two of the four residues when both are not phosphorylated. The epitope is generated upon Wnt signaling as well as upon pharmacological inhibition of GSK3 by lithium, providing formal proof for the regulated phosphorylation of the Ser/Thr residues of beta-catenin by Wnt signaling. Immunohistochemical analysis of mouse embryos utilizing the antibody visualizes sites that transduce Wnt signals through the canonical Wnt cascade.
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PMID:Wnt signaling controls the phosphorylation status of beta-catenin. 1183 40

Axin uses different combinations of functional domains in down-regulation of the Wnt pathway and activation of the MEKK1/JNK pathway. We are interested in the elucidation of the functional switch of Axin. In the present study, we show that the Wnt activator CKIepsilon, but not CKIIalpha, Frat1, LRP5, or LRP6, inhibited Axin-mediated JNK activation. We also found that both CKIalpha and CKIepsilon interacted with Axin, whereas CKIIalpha did not bind to Axin and had no effect on Axin-mediated JNK activity even though CKIIalpha has also been suggested to be an activator for the Wnt pathway. The COOH-terminal region and the MEKK1-interacting domain of Axin are important for CKIalpha-Axin and CKIepsilon-Axin interaction. We further demonstrated that CKIepsilon and CKIalpha binding to Axin excluded MEKK1 binding, indicating that a competitive physical occupancy may underlie the inhibitory effect. Moreover, our data indicated that CKIepsilon kinase activity plays an additive role in this effect. Taken together, we have demonstrated that CKI and CKII exhibit differential effects on Axin-MEKK1 interaction and Axin-mediated JNK activation. Furthermore, our data suggest that CKI may provide a possible switch mechanism for Axin function in the regulation of Wnt and JNK pathways.
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PMID:Casein kinase I and casein kinase II differentially regulate axin function in Wnt and JNK pathways. 1188 95

Wnt regulation of beta-catenin degradation is essential for development and carcinogenesis. beta-catenin degradation is initiated upon amino-terminal serine/threonine phosphorylation, which is believed to be performed by glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) in complex with tumor suppressor proteins Axin and adnomatous polyposis coli (APC). Here we describe another Axin-associated kinase, whose phosphorylation of beta-catenin precedes and is required for subsequent GSK-3 phosphorylation of beta-catenin. This "priming" kinase is casein kinase Ialpha (CKIalpha). Depletion of CKIalpha inhibits beta-catenin phosphorylation and degradation and causes abnormal embryogenesis associated with excessive Wnt/beta-catenin signaling. Our study uncovers distinct roles and steps of beta-catenin phosphorylation, identifies CKIalpha as a component in Wnt/beta-catenin signaling, and has implications to pathogenesis/therapeutics of human cancers and diabetes.
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PMID:Control of beta-catenin phosphorylation/degradation by a dual-kinase mechanism. 1195 36

Dapper was isolated in a screen for proteins interacting with Dishevelled, a key factor in Wnt signaling. Dapper and Dishevelled colocalize intracellularly and form a complex with Axin, GSK-3, CKI, and beta-catenin. Overexpression of Dapper increases Axin and GSK-3 in this complex, resulting in decreased soluble beta-catenin and decreased activation of beta-catenin-responsive genes. Dapper also inhibits activation by Dishevelled of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), a component of beta-catenin-independent Frizzled signaling. Inhibition of Dapper activates both beta-catenin-responsive genes and an AP1-responsive promoter, demonstrating that Dapper is a general Dishevelled antagonist. Depletion of maternal Dapper RNA from Xenopus embryos results in loss of notochord and head structures, demonstrating that Dapper is required for normal vertebrate development.
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PMID:Dapper, a Dishevelled-associated antagonist of beta-catenin and JNK signaling, is required for notochord formation. 1197 Aug 95

The Wnt pathway controls numerous developmental processes via the beta-catenin-TCF/LEF transcription complex. Deregulation of the pathway results in the aberrant accumulation of beta-catenin in the nucleus, often leading to cancer. Normally, cytoplasmic beta-catenin associates with APC and axin and is continuously phosphorylated by GSK-3beta, marking it for proteasomal degradation. Wnt signaling is considered to prevent GSK-3beta from phosphorylating beta-catenin, thus causing its stabilization. However, the Wnt mechanism of action has not been resolved. Here we study the regulation of beta-catenin phosphorylation and degradation by the Wnt pathway. Using mass spectrometry and phosphopeptide-specific antibodies, we show that a complex of axin and casein kinase I (CKI) induces beta-catenin phosphorylation at a single site: serine 45 (S45). Immunopurified axin and recombinant CKI phosphorylate beta-catenin in vitro at S45; CKI inhibition suppresses this phosphorylation in vivo. CKI phosphorylation creates a priming site for GSK-3beta and is both necessary and sufficient to initiate the beta-catenin phosphorylation-degradation cascade. Wnt3A signaling and Dvl overexpression suppress S45 phosphorylation, thereby precluding the initiation of the cascade. Thus, a single, CKI-dependent phosphorylation event serves as a molecular switch for the Wnt pathway.
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PMID:Axin-mediated CKI phosphorylation of beta-catenin at Ser 45: a molecular switch for the Wnt pathway. 1200 Jul 90

Drosophila dishevelled (dsh) functions in two pathways: it is necessary to transduce Wingless (Wg) signaling and it is required in planar cell polarity. To learn more about how Dsh can discriminate between these functions, we performed genetic screens to isolate additional dsh alleles and we examined the potential role of protein phosphorylation by site-directed mutagenesis. We identified two alleles with point mutations in the Dsh DEP domain that specifically disrupt planar polarity signaling. When positioned in the structure of the DEP domain, these mutations are located close to each other and to a previously identified planar polarity mutation. In addition to the requirement for the DEP domain, we found that a cluster of potential phosphorylation sites in a binding domain for the protein kinase PAR-1 is also essential for planar polarity signaling. To identify regions of dsh that are necessary for Wg signaling, we screened for mutations that modified a GMR-GAL4;UAS-dsh overexpression phenotype in the eye. We recovered many alleles of the transgene containing missense mutations, including mutations in the DIX domain and in the DEP domain, the latter group mapping separately from the planar polarity mutations. In addition, several transgenes had mutations within a domain containing a consensus sequence for an SH3-binding protein. We also recovered second-site-suppressing mutations in axin, mapping at a region that may specifically interact with overexpressed Dsh.
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PMID:A mutational analysis of dishevelled in Drosophila defines novel domains in the dishevelled protein as well as novel suppressing alleles of axin. 1207 70

We have developed a novel Saccharomyces cerevisiae model system to dissect the molecular events of beta-catenin (beta-cat) signaling. Coexpression of mammalian beta-cat with TCF4 or LEF1 results in nuclear accumulation of these proteins and a functional complex that activates reporter gene transcription from constructs containing leukocyte enhancer factor (LEF)/T cell factor (TCF) response elements. Reporter transcription is constitutive, requires expression of both beta-cat and TCF4 or LEF1, and is not supported by mutated LEF/TCF binding elements or by TCF4 or LEF1 mutants. A cytoplasmic domain of E-cadherin or a functional fragment of adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) protein (APC-25) complexes with beta-cat, reduces beta-cat binding to TCF4, and leads to increased cytoplasmic localization of beta-cat and a reduction in reporter activation. Systematic mutation of putative nuclear export signal sequences in APC-25 decreases APC-25 binding to beta-cat and restores reporter gene transcription. Additional beta-cat signaling components, Axin and glycogen synthase kinase 3beta, form a multisubunit complex similar to that found in mammalian cells. Coexpression of the F-box protein beta-transducin repeat-containing protein reduces the stability of beta-cat and decreases reporter activation. Thus, we have reconstituted a functional beta-cat signal transduction pathway in yeast and show that beta-cat signaling can be regulated at multiple levels, including protein subcellular localization, protein complex formation, and protein stability.
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PMID:A yeast model system for functional analysis of beta-catenin signaling. 1223 24

beta-Catenin transduces cytosolic signals to the nucleus in the Wnt pathway. The Wnt ligand stabilizes cytosolic beta-catenin protein, preventing its phosphorylation by inhibiting glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3). Serine-33 and -37 of beta-catenin are GSK3 phosphorylation sites that serve as recognition sites for the beta-TRCP-ubiquitin ligase complex, which ultimately triggers beta-catenin degradation. Mutations at those two sites, as well as in Ser-45, stabilize beta-catenin. Recently, casein kinase I epsilon (CKI epsilon) has been shown to be a positive regulator of the Wnt pathway. Its action mechanism, however, remains unknown. Here I show that Ser-45 is phosphorylated not by GSK3 but by CKI epsilon. Axin, a scaffold protein that binds CKI epsilon and beta-catenin, enhances this CKI epsilon-mediated phosphorylation. Overexpression of CKI epsilon in cells increases the amount of beta-catenin phosphorylated at Ser-45. Ser-45 phosphorylated beta-catenin is a better substrate for GSK3, which suggests that CKI epsilon and GSK3 may co-operate in destabilizing beta-catenin. In spite of the fact that CKI epsilon was found as a positive regulator of the Wnt pathway, mutational analysis suggests that mutation of Ser-45 regulates beta-catenin stability by inhibiting the ability of GSK3 to phosphorylate Ser-33 and -37, thereby disrupting the interaction between beta-catenin, beta-TRCP and Axin. I propose that phosphorylation of Ser-45 by CKI epsilon plays an important role in regulating beta-catenin stability.
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PMID:Phosphorylation and regulation of beta-catenin by casein kinase I epsilon. 1241 18

Glycogen synthase kinase 3beta (GSK3beta) is an essential protein kinase that regulates numerous functions within the cell. One critically important substrate of GSK3beta is the microtubule-associated protein tau. Phosphorylation of tau by GSK3beta decreases tau-microtubule interactions. In addition to phosphorylating tau, GSK3beta is a downstream regulator of the wnt signaling pathway, which maintains the levels of beta-catenin. Axin plays a central role in regulating beta-catenin levels by bringing together GSK3beta and beta-catenin and facilitating the phosphorylation of beta-catenin, targeting it for ubiquitination and degradation by the proteasome. Although axin clearly facilitates the phosphorylation of beta-catenin, its effects on the phosphorylation of other GSK3beta substrates are unclear. Therefore in this study the effects of axin on GSK3beta-mediated tau phosphorylation were examined. The results clearly demonstrate that axin is a negative regulator of tau phosphorylation by GSK3beta. This negative regulation of GSK3beta-mediated tau phosphorylation is due to the fact that axin efficiently binds GSK3beta but not tau and thus sequesters GSK3beta away from tau, as an axin mutant that does not bind GSK3beta did not inhibit tau phosphorylation by GSK3beta. This is the first demonstration that axin negatively affects the phosphorylation of a GSK3beta substrate, and provides a novel mechanism by which tau phosphorylation and function can be regulated within the cell.
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PMID:Axin negatively affects tau phosphorylation by glycogen synthase kinase 3beta. 1242 63

Cancers of the gastrointestinal tract, including the liver, bile ducts, and pancreas, constitute the largest group of malignant tumors. Colorectal cancer is one of the most common neoplastic diseases in Western countries and one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths. Inactivation of the adenomatous polyposis coli (APC) tumor-suppressor gene during early adenoma formation is thought to be the first genetic event in the process of colorectal carcinogenesis followed by mutations in oncogenes like K-Ras and tumor-suppressor genes like p53. Identification of the interaction of APC with the proto-oncogene beta-catenin has linked colorectal carcinogenesis to the Wnt-signal transduction pathway. The main function of APC is thought to be the regulation of free beta-catenin in concert with the glycogen synthase kinase 3beta (GSK-3beta) and Axin proteins. Loss of APC function, inactivation of Axin or activating beta-catenin mutations result in the cellular accumulation of beta-catenin. Upon translocation to the nucleus beta-catenin serves as an activator of T-cell factor (Tcf)-dependent transcription leading to an increased expression of several specific target genes including c-Myc, cyclin D1, MMP-7, and ITF-2. While APC mutations are almost exclusively found in colorectal cancers, deregulation of Wnt/beta-catenin/Tcf signaling is also common in other gastrointestinal and extra-gastrointestinal human cancers. In a fraction of hepatocellular carcinomas the Wnt pathway is deregulated by inactivation of Axin or stabilizing mutations of beta-catenin. The majority of hepatoblastomas and a group of gastric cancers also carry beta-catenin mutations. Clearly, this pathway harbors great potential for future applications in cancer diagnostics, staging, and therapy.
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PMID:Wnt/beta-catenin/tcf signaling: a critical pathway in gastrointestinal tumorigenesis. 1248 Nov 59


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