Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound
Pivot Concepts: Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound   Target Concepts: Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound

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Query: EC:2.7.11.1 (protein kinase)
81,284 document(s) hit in 31,850,051 MEDLINE articles (0.00 seconds)

Three protein kinases (ATP:protein phosphotransferase, EC 2.7.1.37) were detected when the soluble fraction of rabbit kidney medulla was chromatographed on DEAE-cellulose with a linear NaC1 gradient. The first two kinases eluted (Peak 1 and Peak II) were cyclic-AMP-dependent, wheras Peak III was cyclic-AMP-independent. A procedure was developed to separate the catalytic subunit of Peak II cyclic-AMP-dependent protein kinase (representing the bulk of the histone kinase activity) from Peak III protein kinase. In contrast to the catalytic subunit, Peak III protein kinase phosphorylated casein more rapidly than histone. Peak III was insensitive to the heat-stable protein inhibitor of cyclic-AMP-dependent protein kinases and appeared to have a higher requirement for ATP than did the catalytic subunit. Peak III catalyzed the conversion of glycogen synthase (UDPglucose:glycogen alpha-4-glucosyltransferase, EC 2.4.1.11) from the I (glucose-6-phosphate-independent) to the D (glucose-6-phosphate-dependent) form. This conversion was dependent on Mg-2+ and ATP and was unaffected by cyclic AMP, cyclic GMP, or the protein inhibitor. Glycogen synthase I in the soluble fraction of kidney medulla could be converted to the D form by endogenous glycogen synthase I kinase if Mg-2+ and ATP were added. Most of this glycogen synthase I kinase activity was unaffected by cyclic AMP or by the protein inhibitor, suggesting that Peak III may be of major importance in the regulation of glycogen synthase in vivo.
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PMID:Isolation of a glycogen synthase I kinase that is independent of adenosine 3':5'-monophosphate. 16 80

Purified glycogen synthase is contaminated with traces of two protein kinases that can phosphorylate the enzyme. One is protein kinase dependent on adenosine 3':5'-monophosphate (cyclic AMP) and the second is an activity termed glycogen synthase kinase-2 [Nimmo, H.G. and Cohen P, (1974)]. Glycogen synthase kinase-2 has been found to be localized relatively specifically in the protein-glycogen complex. It has been purified 4000-fold by two procedures, both of which involve disruption of the complex, followed by the DEAE-cellulose and phosphocellulose chromatographies. However the salt concentration at which glycogen synthase kinase-2 is eluted from DEAE-cellulose depends on the method that is used to disrupt the complex. The results indicate that glycogen synthase kinase-2 is firmly attached to a protein component of the complex. The isolation procedures separate glycogen synthase kinase-2 from phosphorylase kinase, cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase and other glycogen-metabolising enzymes. Glycogen synthase kinase-2 is the major phosvitin kinase in skeletal muscle, although glycogen synthase is a six to eight-fold better substrate than phosvitin under the standard assay conditions. Phosphorylase kinase and phosphorylase b are not substrates for glycogen synthase kinase 2. Following incubation with cyclic-AMP-dependent protein kinase, cyclic AMP and Mg-ATP, the phosphorylation of glycogen synthase reaches a plateau at 1.0 molecules of phosphate incorporated per subunit and the activity ratio measured in the absence and presence of glucose 6-phosphate falls from 0.8 to a plateau of 0.18. The Ka for glucose 6-phosphate of this phosphorylated species, termed glycogen synthase b1, is the 0.6 mM. Following incubation with glycogen synthase kinase-2 and Mg-ATP, the phosphorylation reaches a plateau of 0.92 molecules of phosphate incorporated per subunit and the activity ratio decreases to a plateau of 0.08. The Ka for glucose 6-phosphate of this phosphorylated species, termed glycogen synthetase b2, is 4 mM. In the presence of both cyclic-AMP-dependent protein kinase and glycogen synthase kinase-2, the phosphorylation of glycogen synthase reaches a plateau when 1.95 molecules of phoshophate have been incorporated per subunit. The activity ratio is 0.01 and the Ka for glucose 6-phosphate is 10 mM. The results indicate that glycogen synthase can be regulated by two distinct phosphorylation-dephosphorylation cycles. The implication of these findings for the regulation of glycogen synthase in vivo are discussed.
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PMID:The phosphorylation of rabbit skeletal muscle glycogen synthase by glycogen synthase kinase-2 and adenosine-3':5'-monophosphate-dependent protein kinase. 18 55

The effects of streptozotocin-induced diabetes and of insulin supplementation to diabetic rats on glycogen-metabolizing enzymes in liver were determined. The results were compared with those from control animals. The activities of glycogenolytic enzymes, i.e. phosphorylase (both a and b), phosphorylase kinase and protein kinase (in the presence or in the absence of cyclic AMP), were significantly decreased in the diabetic animals. The enzyme activities were restored to control values by insulin therapy. Glycogen synthase (I-form) activity, similarly decreased in the diabetic animals, was also restored to control values after the administration of insulin. The increase in glycogen synthase(I-form) activity after insulin treatment was associated with a concomitant increase in phosphoprotein phosphatase activity. The increase in phosphatase activity was due to (i) a change in the activity of the enzyme itself and (ii) a decrease in a heat stable protein inhibitor of the phosphatase activity.
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PMID:The effect of streptozotocin-induced diabetes and of insulin supplementation on glycogen metabolism in rat liver. 20 91

Histone kinase activity was purified from human polymorphonuclear leukocytes by ammonium sulphate precipitation of a 180 000 x g supernatant, followed by DEAE-cellulose chromatography and gelfiltration. On DEAE-cellulose cAMP dependent kinase activity eluted in two peaks, I and III, at 1.2 mmho and 6.5 mmho, respectively. Catalytic subunit (C) from both peaks had Mr 33 000, 3.0S. Regulatory subunit (R) from peak I and III both had Mr 33 000 upon gelfiltration, but sedimented at 2.8--3.0S and 3.0--3.2S, respectively. R2 and R4 subunits were identified. The R-C dimer from peak I and III sedimented at 4.8S and (4.8)--5.1S, respectively. The holoenzyme from peak I had Mr 165 000, 6.7S, which suggest a R2C2 structure, while that of peak III sedimented at 6.7S, but eluted at Mr 330 000 (2R2C2) by gelfiltration. The Kmapp for peak I and III enzymes were, respectively: histone IIA 0.5 mg/ml (both forms), ATP 18 microM and 23 microM, and cAMP 5 X 10(-8) M and 6.3 x 10(-8) M. Both enzymes had pH optimum 6.7--6.9 and were equally sensitive to Ca2+, temperature and protein kinase inhibitor. The substrate specificity was histone VS greater than histone IIA = histone VIS greater than casein greater than phosvitin. Peak I enzyme, but not peak III enzyme, was dissociated by histone and high ionic strength and reassociation of R and C subunits were facilitated by ATP-Mg. It is concluded that peak I and III enzymes represent type I and II cAMP dependent protein kinases, respectively. Type I comprises 20--30% of cAMP dependent protein kinase activity and is absent from the 180 000 x g supernatant of gently disrupted cells. Purified catalytic subunit had Kmapp (ATP) 20 microM with rabbit muscle glycogen synthease I as substrates. Synthase I from rabbit muscle and human leukocytes were phosphorylated by catalytic subunit to synthase D (ratio of independence less than 0.07). cAMP independent histone kinase activity eluted in one peak (Peak II) at3 mmho. The enzymatic activity sedimented at 3.4S and eluted from gelfiltration with Mr 78 000. Kmapp for ATP was 78 microM and for histone IIA 0.5 mg/ml. The enzyme was sensitive to temperature, but less sensitive than cAMP dependent protein kinase to Ca2+, and insensitive to protein kinase inhibitor. The substrate specificity was histone IIA greater than histone VS = histone VIS, while casein and phosvitin were poor substrates. Glycogen synthase I was not phosphorylated. The cAMP independent histone kinase activity comprised 15% of the total histone kinase activity in a crude homogenate of leukocytes. Its physiological substrate is unknown.
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PMID:Purification and properies of cAMP dependent and independent histone kinases from human leukocytes. 22 66

Hepatocytes isolated from the livers of fed rats were used for a comparative study of the effects of phenylephrine, vasopressin and glucagon on gluconeogenesis and on enzymes of glycogen metabolism. When hepatocytes were incubated in the presence of Ca(2+), phenylephrine stimulated gluconeogenesis from pyruvate less than did glucagon, but, in contrast with this hormone, it did not affect the activities of protein kinase and pyruvate kinase, nor the concentration of phosphoenolpyruvate, and it did not decrease the release of (3)H(2)O from [6-(3)H]glucose. The effects of vasopressin were similar to those of phenylephrine. Gluconeogenesis from fructose was also stimulated by phenylephrine and, more markedly, by glucagon at the expense of the conversion of fructose into lactate. Insulin was able to antagonize the stimulatory effect of phenylephrine on gluconeogenesis from pyruvate. When Ca(2+) was removed from the incubation medium, phenylephrine still stimulated gluconeogenesis from pyruvate, but it also caused an activation of protein kinase and an inactivation of pyruvate kinase; accordingly, the concentration of phosphoenolpyruvate was increased, and, in contrast, vasopressin had no effect on all these parameters. The property of phenylephrine to cause the activation of glycogen phosphorylase was decreased by glucose or by the absence of Ca(2+); it was abolished when these two conditions were combined. Glycogen synthase was inactivated by phenylephrine in the presence or the absence of Ca(2+), although presumably by different mechanisms.
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PMID:Control of gluconeogenesis and of enzymes of glycogen metabolism in isolated rat hepatocytes. A parallel study of the effect of phenylephrine and of glucagon. 74 52

Elevated dosage of the GAC1 gene from the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae causes hyperaccumulation of glycogen whereas a gene disruption of GAC1 results in reduced glycogen levels. Glycogen synthase is almost entirely in the active, glucose 6-phosphate-independent, form in cells with increased gene dosage of GAC1 whereas the enzyme is mostly in the inactive form in strains lacking GAC1. GAC1 encodes an 88 kDa protein that is similar to the regulatory subunit (RG1) of phosphoprotein phosphatase type 1 (PP-1) from skeletal muscle that targets PP-1 to glycogen particles. Taken together, these results suggest that GAC1 encodes a regulatory subunit of PP-1. As previously shown for glycogen phosphorylase (GPH1), GAC1 RNA accumulates concomitantly with the appearance of glycogen. A strain with a mutation in the regulatory subunit of the cAMP-dependent protein kinase (bcy1) fails to accumulate GPH1 and GAC1 RNA. These results point to coordinate regulation of enzymes involved in glycogen metabolism at the level of RNA accumulation and indicate that at least part of this control is exerted by the RAS-cAMP pathway.
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PMID:GAC1 may encode a regulatory subunit for protein phosphatase type 1 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. 131 Sep 38

Study of GSK-3 had an inauspicious beginning rooted in intermediary metabolism. However, owing to the fortuitous convergence of several disparate areas of biology, the enzyme now offers unique opportunities for study of the control of a variety cellular processes. While at first sight a role in transcriptional regulation appears unlikely for a protein first identified as acting on glycogen synthase, it is even more surprising that the same protein should be functionally interchangeable with a fruit fly homeotic gene. Such understandable scepticism, however, is based on teleological bias. Glycogen synthase is a critical enzyme regulating glucose storage. The c-Jun oncoprotein may have the potential to transform cells but this does not excuse it from similar mechanisms of control to glycogen synthase. Likewise, homeotic genes play a crucial role in setting up the body plan of an embryo but must also be subject to control. The main difference is that when such control is lost, the result is rather graphic. It is, therefore, only to be expected that regulatory protein kinases will surface in superficially quite unrelated areas and that many of their targets will be 'housekeeping' proteins. Perhaps the most difficult aspect of protein phosphorylation research is the linking of physiological substrates with particular protein kinases, hence reconstructing pathways. No matter how compelling in vitro data appear, there must be demonstration that the protein is targeted by the specific protein kinase in cells, an extremely difficult process. Most progress in this respect has been made using genetic analysis in lower organisms, especially yeast. Here another problem arises: demonstration of biochemical linkages underlying genetic interactions which requires function to be ascribed to genes identified by a gross effect. The challenge is to co-ordinate these two approaches, a strategy currently being employed to further unravel the biological role of GSK-3.
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PMID:Glycogen synthase kinase-3: functions in oncogenesis and development. 133 7

Skeletal muscles in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) are resistant to insulin; i.e., the effect of insulin on glucose disposal is reduced compared with the effect in control subjects. This defect has been found to be localized to the nonoxidative pathway of glucose disposal; hence, the deposition of glucose, as glycogen, is abnormally low. This defect may be inherited, because it is present in first-degree relatives to NIDDM patients two to three decades before they develop frank diabetes mellitus. The cellular defects responsible for the abnormal insulin action in NIDDM patients is reviewed in this article. The paper focuses mainly on convalent insulin signaling. Insulin is postulated to stimulate glucose storage by initiating a cascade of phosphorylation and dephosphorylation events, which results in dephosphorylation and hence activation of the enzyme glycogen synthase. Glycogen synthase is the key enzyme in regulation of glycogen synthesis in the skeletal muscles of humans. This enzyme is sensitive to insulin, but in NIDDM patients it has been shown to be completely resistant to insulin stimulation when measured at euglycemia. The enzyme seems to be locked in the glucose-6-phosphate (G-6-P)-dependent inactive D-form. This hypothesis is favored by the finding of reduced activity of the glycogen synthase phosphatase and increased activity of the respective kinase cAMP-dependent protein kinase. A reduced glycogen synthase activity has also been found in normoglycemic first-degree relatives of NIDDM patients, indicating that this abnormality precedes development of hyperglycemia in subjects prone to develop NIDDM. Therefore, this defect may be of primary genetic origin. However, it does not appear to be a defect in the enzyme itself, but rather a defect in the covalent activation of the enzyme system. Glycogen synthase is resistant to insulin but may be activated allosterically by G-6-P. This means that the defect in insulin activation can be compensated for by increased intracellular concentrations of G-6-P. In fact, we found that both hyperinsulinemia and hyperglycemia are able to increase the G-6-P level in skeletal muscles. Thus, insulin resistance in the nonoxidative pathway of glucose processing can be overcomed (compensated) by hyperinsulinemia and hyperglycemia. In conclusion, we hypothesize that insulin resistance in skeletal muscles may be a primary genetic defect preceding the diabetic state. The cellular abnormality responsible for that may be a reduced covalent insulin activation of the enzyme glycogen synthase.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)
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PMID:Insulin resistance in skeletal muscles in patients with NIDDM. 155 9

Insulin-stimulated glycogen synthase activity in human muscle correlates with insulin-mediated glucose disposal and is reduced in insulin-resistant subjects. Inhibition of the cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase (A-kinase) is considered as a possible mechanism of insulin action for glycogen synthase activation. In this study, we investigated the time course of insulin action on human muscle A-kinase activity during a 2-h insulin infusion in 13 insulin-sensitive (group S) and 7 insulin-resistant subjects (group R). Muscle biopsies were obtained from quadriceps femoris muscle at times 0, 10, 20, 40, and 120 min. Insulin infusion resulted in significant inhibition of A-kinase activity at 20 and/or 40 min using 0.2, 0.6, and 1.0 microM cyclic AMP in group S. A-kinase activities both before and after insulin administration were lower in group S than in group R using 0.6 microM cyclic AMP. The decrease in apparent affinity for cyclic AMP during insulin infusion was larger for group S compared with group R. Glycogen synthase activity increased significantly after insulin infusion in both groups and was higher in group S compared with group R. The data suggest that a defective response of A-kinase to insulin in insulin-resistant subjects could contribute to their reduced insulin stimulation of skeletal muscle glycogen synthase.
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PMID:Defective insulin response of cyclic adenosine monophosphate-dependent protein kinase in insulin-resistant humans. 184 79

Chromatography of wild-type yeast extracts on DEAE-cellulose columns resolves two populations of glycogen synthase I (glucose-6-P-independent) and D (glucose-6-P-dependent) (Huang, K. P., Cabib, E. (1974) J. Biol. Chem. 249, 3851-3857). Extracts from a glycogen-deficient mutant strain, 22R1 (glc7), yielded only the D form of glycogen synthase. Glycogen synthase D purified from either wild-type yeast or from this glycogen-deficient mutant displayed two polypeptides with molecular masses of 76 and 83 kDa on sodium dodecyl sulfate-gel electrophoresis in a protein ratio of about 4:1. Phosphate analysis showed that glycogen synthase D from either strain of yeast contained approximately 3 phosphates/subunit. The 76- and 83-kDa bands of the mutant strain copurified through a variety of procedures including nondenaturing gel electrophoresis. These two polypeptides showed immunological cross-reactivity and similar peptide maps indicating that they are structurally related. The relative amounts of these two forms remained constant during purification and storage of the enzyme and after treatment with cAMP-dependent protein kinase or with protein phosphatases. The two polypeptides were phosphorylated to similar extent in vitro by the catalytic subunit of mammalian cyclic AMP-dependent protein kinase. Phosphorylation of the enzyme in the presence of labeled ATP followed by tryptic digestion and reversed phase high performance liquid chromatography yielded two labeled peptides from each of the 76- and 83-kDa subunits. Treatment of wild-type yeast with Li+ increased the glycogen synthase activity, measured in the absence of glucose-6-P, by approximately 2-fold, whereas similar treatment of the glc7 mutant had no effect. The results of this study indicate that the GLC7 gene is involved in a pathway that regulates the phosphorylation state of glycogen synthase.
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PMID:Purification and characterization of glycogen synthase from a glycogen-deficient strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. 211 10


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