Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound
Pivot Concepts:   Target Concepts:
Query: EC:2.4.1.18 (branching enzyme)
 628 document(s) hit in 31,850,051 MEDLINE articles (0.00 seconds)

Lafora progressive myoclonus epilepsy, caused by defective laforin or malin, insidiously present in normal teenagers with cognitive decline, followed by rapidly intractable epilepsy, dementia and death. Pathology reveals neurodegeneration with neurofibrillary tangle formation and Lafora bodies (LBs). LBs are deposits of starch-like polyglucosans, insufficiently branched and hence insoluble glycogen molecules resulting from glycogen synthase (GS) overactivity relative to glycogen branching enzyme activity. We previously made the unexpected observation that laforin, in the absence of which polyglucosans accumulate, specifically binds polyglucosans. This suggested that laforin's role is to detect polyglucosan appearances during glycogen synthesis and to initiate mechanisms to downregulate GS. Glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3) is the principal inhibitor of GS. Dephosphorylation of GSK3 at Ser 9 activates GSK3 to inhibit GS through phosphorylation at multiple sites. Glucose-6-phosphate is a potent allosteric activator of GS. Glucose-6-phosphate levels are high when the amount of glucose increases and its activation of GS overrides any phospho-inhibition. Here, we show that laforin is a GSK3 Ser 9 phosphatase, and therefore capable of inactivating GS through GSK3. We also show that laforin interacts with malin and that malin is an E3 ubiquitin ligase that binds GS. We propose that laforin, in response to appearance of polyglucosans, directs two negative feedback pathways: polyglucosan-laforin-GSK3-GS to inhibit GS activity and polyglucosan-laforin-malin-GS to remove GS through proteasomal degradation.
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PMID:Novel glycogen synthase kinase 3 and ubiquitination pathways in progressive myoclonus epilepsy. 1611 20

Glycogen forms through the concerted actions of glycogen synthase (GS) which elongates glycogen strands, and glycogen branching enzyme (GBE). Lafora disease (LD) is a fatal neurodegenerative epilepsy that results from neuronal accumulation of hyperphosphorylated glycogen with excessively long strands (called polyglucosans). There is no GBE deficiency in LD. Instead, the disease is caused by loss-of-function mutations in the EPM2A or EPM2B genes, encoding, respectively, a phosphatase, laforin, and an E3 ubiquiting ligase, malin. A number of experimentally derived hypotheses have been published to explain LD, including: The SGK1 hypothesis - Phosphorylated SGK1 (pSGK1) raises cellular glucose uptake and levels, which would activate GS. Based on observing increased pSGK1 in LD mice it was proposed that raised pSGK1 leads to polyglucosan generation through GS hyperactivation. The Dishevelled2 hypothesis - Downregulating malin in cell culture was reported to increase levels of dishevelled2, which through the wnt/glycogen synthase kinase-3 pathway would likewise overactivate GS. The Autophagic defect hypothesis - Polyglucosans may be natural byproducts of normal glycogen metabolism. LD mice were reported to be autophagy-defective. LD would arise from failed autophagy leading to failed polyglucosan clearance. Finally, the p53 hypothesis - laforin and malin were reported to downregulate p53, their absence leading to increased p53, which would activate apoptosis, leading to the neurodegeneration of LD. In the present work we repeat key experiments that underlie these four hypotheses. We are unable to confirm increased pSGK1, dishevelled2, or p53 in LD mice, nor the reported autophagic defects. Our work does not support the above hypotheses in understanding this unique and severe form of epilepsy.
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PMID:SGK1 (glucose transport), dishevelled2 (wnt signaling), LC3/p62 (autophagy) and p53 (apoptosis) proteins are unaltered in Lafora disease. 2915 46