Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound
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Query: EC:1.7.1.2 (nitrate reductase)
 3,861 document(s) hit in 31,850,051 MEDLINE articles (0.00 seconds)

Assimilatory nitrate reductase from Chlorella vulgaris catalyzes the rate-limiting step, the conversion of nitrate to nitrite, in nitrate assimilation. Initial rate studies of nitrate reductase activity, performed under optimum conditions of constant ionic strength (mu = 0.2) and pH (8.0) and using NADH as reductant, indicated the absence of substrate inhibition at NADH concentrations below 300 microM and NO3- concentrations less than 3 mM. Chlorella nitrate reductase exhibited a marked preference for NADH (Vmax = 9.2 mumol NADH/min/nmol heme and Km = 2.3 microM) as the physiological electron donor but could also utilize alpha-NADH (Vmax = 5.6 mumol NADH/min/nmol heme and Km = 131 microM) and NADPH (Vmax = 0.6 mumol NADPH/min/nmol heme and Km = 910 microM) though with significantly decreased efficiency. Examination of various NADH-analogs indicated that reduced nicotinamide hypoxanthine dinucleotide (NHDH) was used most efficiently (Vmax = 9.3 mumol NHDH/min/nmol heme and Km = 7.9 microM), while reduced nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMNH) was utilized least efficiently (Vmax = 0.07 mumol NMNH/min/nmol heme and Km = 676 microM). Overall, modifications to the nicotinamide moiety or the addition of a phosphate group were observed to result in the most significant decreases in Vmax, indicating poor reducing substrates. Product inhibition studies indicated both NAD+ (Ki = 2.2 mM) and NADP+ (Ki = 10.5 mM) to be competitive inhibitors of Chlorella NR. A variety of NAD+ analogs were also determined to act as competitive inhibitors with varying degrees of efficiency. 3-Pyridinealdehyde adenine dinucleotide was the most efficient inhibitor (Ki = 0.74 mM) while nicotinamide was the least efficient (Ki = 18.1 mM). Overall, changing substituents on the nicotinamide ring or its complete deletion produced the most effective inhibitors compared to NAD+. In contrast, changes in the adenine or ribose moieties produced less effective inhibitors when compared to NAD+. These results represent the most comprehensive analysis of the effect of modifications of the physiological reductant (NADH) and product (NAD+) on nitrate reductase activity.
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PMID:Assimilatory nitrate reductase: reduction and inhibition by NADH/NAD+ analogs. 797 4

In order to study the variation of nitrate reductase (NR) genes among grass species, gene number, intron size and number, and the heme-hinge fragment sequence of 25 grass species were compared. Genomic DNA cut with six restriction enzymes and hybridized with the barley NAD(P)H and NADH NR gene probes revealed a single NAD(P)H NR gene copy and two or more NADH NR gene copies per haploid genome in most of the species examined. Major exceptions were Hordeum vulgare, H. vulgare ssp. spontaneum, and Avena strigosa, which appeared to have a single NADH NR gene copy. The NADH NR gene intron number and lengths were examined by polymerase chain reaction amplification. Introns I and III appeared to be absent in at least one of the NADH NR genes in the grass species, while intron II varied from 0.8 to 2.4 kilobases in length. The NADH NR gene heme-hinge regions were amplified and sequenced. The estimated average overall nucleotide substitution rate in the sequenced region was 7.8 x 10(-10) substitutions/site per year. The synonymous substitution rate was 2.11 x 10(-9) substitutions/synonymous site per year and the nonsynonymous substitution rate was 4.10 x 10(-10) substitutions/nonsynonymous site per year. Phylogenetic analyses showed that all of the wild Hordeum species examined clustered in a group separate from H. vulgare and H. vulgare ssp. spontaneum.
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PMID:Variation of nitrate reductase genes in selected grass species. 853 1

The C-terminal 268 residues of the spinach assimilatory NADH:nitrate reductase amino acid sequence that correspond to the flavin-containing domain of the enzyme have been selectively amplified and expressed as a recombinant protein in Escherichia coli. The recombinant protein, which was produced in both soluble and insoluble forms, was purified to homogeneity using a combination of ammonium sulfate precipitation, affinity chromatography on 5'-ADP-agarose and FPLC gel filtration. The purified domain exhibited a molecular weight of approximately 30 kDa, estimated by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, and a molecular mass of 30,169 for the apoprotein determined by mass spectrometry, which also confirmed the presence of FAD. The UV/visible spectrum was typical of a flavoprotein, with maxima at 272, 386, and 461 nm in the oxidized form while CD spectroscopy yielded both positive and negative maxima at 313 and 382 nm and 461 and 484 nm, respectively. The purified domain showed immunological cross-reactivity with anti-spinach nitrate reductase polyclonal antibodies while both N-terminal and internal amino acid sequencing of isolated peptides confirmed the fidelity of the domain's primary sequence. The protein retained NADH-ferricyanide reductase activity (Vmax=84 micromol NADH consumer/min/nmol FAD) with Km's of 17 and 34 microM for NADH and ferricyanide, respectively, with a pH optimum of approximately 6.5 A variety of NADH-analogs could also function as electron donors, though with decreased efficiency, the most effective being reduced nicotinamide hypoxanthine dinucleotide (V(max) = 35 micromol NHDH consumer/min/nmol FAD) and Km = 22 microM). NAD+ was demonstrated to be a competitive inhibitor (Ki = 1.9 mM) while analysis of inhibition by a variety of NAD+-analogs indicated the most efficient inhibitor to be ADP (Ki = 0.2 mM), with analogs devoid of either the phosphate, ribose, or adenine moieties proving to be markedly less-efficient inhibitors. The isolated domain was also capable of reducing cytochrome b5 directly (V(max) = 1.2 micromol NADH consumed/min/nmol FAD, Km (cyt. b5) = 6 microM), supporting the FAD -> b557 -> Mo electron transfer sequence in spinach nitrate reductase.
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PMID:Spectroscopic and kinetic properties of a recombinant form of the flavin domain of spinach NADH: nitrate reductase. 861 85

Direct electrochemical studies, utilizing two voltammetric methods-square-wave voltammetry (SWV) and cyclic voltammetry (CV)-have been performed on recombinant forms of the flavin domain of spinach assimilatory nitrate reductase in the presence of NAD+ analogs. The reduction potentials (E degrees ') of the flavin domains have been determined at an edge pyrolytic graphite electrode utilizing MgCl2 as a redox-inactive promoter. Under identical experimental conditions (pH 7.0, 25 degrees C), the two-electron reduction potential for the FAD/FADH2 couple has been determined to be -274 and -257 mV by SWV and CV, respectively. In contrast, the reduction potentials of free FAD have been determined to be -234 and -227 mV by SWV and CV, respectively. The reduction potentials of the complex formed between the FAD prosthetic group in the recombinant flavin domain and various NAD+ analogs have been determined to be as follows: NAD+ (E degrees ' = -192 mV), 5'-ADP ribose (E degrees ' = -199 mV), ADP (E degrees ' = -154 mV), AMP (E degrees ' = -196 mV), adenosine (E degrees ' = -192 mV), adenine (E degrees ' = -220 mV), and NMN (E degrees ' = -208 mV). In contrast to these positive shifts in reduction potential, nicotinamide (E degrees ' = -268 mV) had very little effect on the reduction potential of this flavin complex. Moreover, addition of NAD+ to the FAD prosthetic group in a variety of mutant forms of the recombinant flavin domain resulted in positive shifts in the reduction potential of the complex, although the magnitude of the shifts varied from a minimum of 6 mV obtained for the C240A mutant to a maximum of 79 mV obtained for the C62S mutant. These results represent the first extensive application of direct electrochemistry to examine the redox properties of assimilatory nitrate reductase and indicate that complex formation with NAD+, or various NAD+ analogs, results in a positive shift in the flavin reduction potential, with the magnitude of the shift correlating well with the efficiency of the inhibitor.
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PMID:Direct electrochemistry of the flavin domain of assimilatory nitrate reductase: effects of NAD+ and NAD+ analogs. 928 15

Nitrate is a significant nitrogen source for plants and microorganisms. Recent molecular genetic analyses of representative bacterial species have revealed structural and regulatory genes responsible for the nitrate-assimilation phenotype. Together with results from physiological and biochemical studies, this information has unveiled fundamental aspects of bacterial nitrate assimilation and provides the foundation for further investigations. Well-studied genera are: the cyanobacteria, including the unicellular Synechococcus and the filamentous Anabaena; the gamma-proteobacteria Klebsiella and Azotobacter; and a Gram-positive bacterium, Bacillus. Nitrate uptake in most of these groups seems to involve a periplasmic binding protein-dependent system that presumably is energized by ATP hydrolysis (ATP-binding cassette transporters). However, Bacillus may, like fungi and plants, utilize electrogenic uptake through a representative of the major facilitator superfamily of transport proteins. Nitrate reductase contains both molybdenum cofactor and an iron-sulfur cluster. Electron donors for the enzymes from cyanobacteria and Azotobacter are ferredoxin and flavodoxin, respectively, whereas the Klebsiella and Bacillus enzymes apparently accept electrons from a specific NAD(P)H-reducing subunit. These subunits share sequence similarity with the reductase components of bacterial aromatic ring-hydroxylating dehydrogenases such as toluene dioxygenase. Nitrite reductase contains sirohaem and an iron-sulfur cluster. The enzymes from cyanobacteria and plants use ferredoxin as the electron donor, whereas the larger enzymes from other bacteria and fungi contain FAD and NAD(P)H binding sites. Nevertheless, the two forms of nitrite reductase share recognizable sequence and structural similarity. Synthesis of nitrate assimilation enzymes and uptake systems is controlled by nitrogen limitation in all bacteria examined, but the relevant regulatory proteins exhibit considerable structural and mechanistic diversity in different bacterial groups. A second level of control, pathway-specific induction by nitrate and nitrite in Klebsiella, involves transcription antitermination. Several issues await further experimentation, including the mechanism and energetics of nitrate uptake, the pathway(s) for nitrite uptake, the nature of electron flow during nitrate reduction, and the action of transcriptional regulatory circuits. Fundamental knowledge of nitrate assimilation physiology should also enhance the study of nitrate metabolism in soil, water and other natural environments, a challenging topic of considerable interest and importance.
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PMID:Nitrate assimilation by bacteria. 932 45

The cytochrome b reductase fragment of Neurospora crassa NADPH:nitrate reductase (EC 1.6.6.3) was overexpressed in Escherichia coli with a His-tag for purification after mutation of the NADPH binding site. The recombinant enzyme fragment was altered by site-directed mutagenesis guided by the three-dimensional structure of cytochrome b reductase fragment of corn NADH:nitrate reductase (EC 1.6.6.1). Substitution of Asp for Ser920 (using residue numbering for holo-NADPH:nitrate reductase of N. crassa) greatly increased preference for NADH. This mutant had nearly the same NADH:ferricyanide reductase kcat as wild-type with NADPH. Substitutions for Arg921 had little influence on coenzyme specificity, while substitution of Ser or Gln for Arg932 did. The cytochrome b reductase mutant with greatest preference for NADH over NADPH was the doubly substituted form, Asp for Ser920/Ser for Arg932, but it had low activity and low affinity for coenzymes, which indicated a general loss of specificity in the binding site. Steady-state kinetic constants were determined for wild type and mutants with NADPH and NADH. Wild type had a specificity ratio of 1100, which was defined as the catalytic efficiency (kcat/Km) for NADPH divided by catalytic efficiency for NADH, while Asp for Ser920 mutant had a ratio of 0.17. Thus, the specificity ratio was reversed by over 6000-fold by a single mutation. Preference for NADPH versus NADH is strongly influenced by presence/absence of a negatively charged amino acid side chain in the binding site for the 2' phosphate of NADPH in nitrate reductase, which may partially account for existence of bispecific NAD(P)H:nitrate reductases (EC 1.6.6.2).
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PMID:Engineering of pyridine nucleotide specificity of nitrate reductase: mutagenesis of recombinant cytochrome b reductase fragment of Neurospora crassa NADPH:Nitrate reductase. 975 Jan 71

Integrated bioelectrocatalytically active electrodes are assembled by the deposition of enzymes onto respective electrically contacted affinity matrices and further cross-linking of the enzyme monolayers. A catalyst-NAD(+)-dyad for the binding of the NAD(+)-dependent enzymes and cytochrome-like molecules for the binding of the heme-protein-dependent enzymes are used to construct integrated electrically contacted biocatalytic systems. NAD(+)-dependent lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is assembled onto a pyrroloquinoline quinone-NAD+ monolayer. The redox-active monolayer is organized via covalent attachment of pyrroloquinoline quinone (PQQ) to a cystamine monolayer associated with a Au-electrode, followed by covalent linkage of N6-(2-aminoethyl)-NAD+ to the monolayer. The interface modified with the PQQ-NAD(+)-dyad provides temporary affinity binding for LDH and allows cross-linking of the enzyme monolayer. The cross-linked LDH is bioelectrocatalytically active towards oxidation of lactate. The bioelectrocatalyzed process involves the PQQ-mediated oxidation of the immobilized NADH. Integrated, electrically contacted bioelectrodes are produced by the affinity binding and further cross-linking of nitrate reductase (NR) (cytochrome-dependent, E.C. 1.9.6.1 from E. coli) or CoII-protoporphyrin IX reconstituted myoglobin (CoII-Mb) atop the microperoxidase-11 (MP-11) monolayer associated with a Au-electrode. The MP-11 monolayer provides an affinity interface for the temporary binding of the enzymes, that allows the cross-linkage of the enzyme molecules. The MP-11 assembly acts as electron transfer mediator for the reduction of the secondary enzyme layer. The integrated bioelectrodes consisting of NR and CoII-Mb show catalytic activities for NO3- reduction and acetylene-dicarboxylic acid hydrogenation, respectively. Two FeIII-protoporphyrin IX units are reconstituted into a four alpha-helix bundle de novo protein assembled as a monolayer on a Au-electrode. Vectorial electron transfer proceeds in the synthetic heme-protein monolayer. Cross-linking of an affinity complex generated between the FeIII-protoporphyrin IX reconstituted de novo protein monolayer and NR yields an integrated, electrically contacted enzyme electrode that stimulates the bioelectrocatalyzed reduction of nitrate.
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PMID:Fully integrated biocatalytic electrodes based on bioaffinity interactions. 982 68

The NAD(P)H nitrate reductase (NR) from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is encoded by the structural gene Nia1. Numerous data from the literature indicate that this enzyme is submitted to complex regulation mechanisms involving multiple controls at transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. To specifically investigate the regulation of the Nia1 gene at the transcriptional level, NR+ and NR- transformed cells harbouring the Nia1:Ars construct (Nia1 promoter fused to the arylsulfatase (ARS)-encoding Ars reporter gene) were cultivated under various experimental conditions and the ARS activities were recorded. ARS levels were very low in cells grown in the presence of NH4Cl and dramatically increased on agar medium deprived of any nitrogen source or containing nitrate, nitrite, urea, arginine or glutamine. Compared to nitrogen-free medium, a slight positive effect of nitrate in the NR+ strain and a significant negative effect of nitrite in both NR+ and NR- strains were observed. The ARS activities were high in the light and very low in the dark or in the light in the presence of DCMU, indicating that Nia1 transcription is strikingly dependent on photosynthetic activity. Acetate used as a carbon source in the dark did not substitute for light in stimulating Nia1:Ars expression. Inactivation of NR by tungstate treatment of the NR+ strain resulted in a dramatic increase of ARS level suggesting that in Chlamydomonas, like in higher plants, active NR negatively regulates the transcription of the NR structural gene. Deleting the major part of the Nia1 leader sequence still present in the chimeric gene resulted in a decrease of ARS level but did not modify the regulation pattern.
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PMID:Transcriptional regulation of the Nia1 gene encoding nitrate reductase in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii: effects of various environmental factors on the expression of a reporter gene under the control of the Nia1 promoter. 1064 29

The distribution of the Mo-enzymes aldehyde oxidase (AO; EC 1.2.3.1) xanthine dehydrogenase (XDH; EC 1.2.1.37) and nitrate reductase (NAD(P)H NR; EC 1.6.6.1-2) was studied along the longitudinal and transversal axes of maize (Zea mays L. cv. Jubily) nodal roots as affected by nitrogen sources and salinity. Activities of the Mo-enzymes were considerably enhanced under mild saline conditions. The activities of AO and XDH increased following addition of ammonium to the nutrient solution. Immunoblot analysis with antibodies raised against maize AO protein revealed increased levels of AO proteins in root tips of ammonium fed plants. Application of salinity to nitrate fed plants did not affect the enzyme protein level, although it enhanced the activity of the Mo-hydroxylases. The specific activities of the Mo-enzymes were the highest in root tips (0-1 cm segments) while on the transversal axis maximal activity was observed in the stele or vascular cylinder. Activity staining of AO after native PAGE of root extracts revealed four bands of AO proteins (AO1-4) capable of oxidizing a number of aliphatic and aromatic aldehydes. Increased AO activity in maize nodal roots grown with ammonium, and salinity were observed mainly at the AO3 and AO4 bands. Tips and stele contained primarily AO3 and AO4, and only traces of AO1 and AO2. SDS-PAGE of root extracts followed by Western blots revealed, besides the major 150 kD subunit of AO, two polypeptides with molecular masses of 72 and 85 kD located specifically in the cortex. Part of the polymorphism of AO in plant roots may be related to the allocation of distinct isoforms to different regions of the root, although the specific metabolic roles of the different bands have not been established.
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PMID:Distribution of the Mo-enzymes aldehyde oxidase, xanthine dehydrogenase and nitrate reductase in maize (Zea mays L.) nodal roots as affected by nitrogen and salinity. 1077 39

Nitrate reductase (NaR) catalyses the reduction of nitrate to nitrite via a two-electron transfer. In fungi, the electron donor for NaR is NADPH whereas plants can have two enzymes, NADH:NaR and a bispecific NAD(P)H:NaR. PCR mutagenesis was employed to introduce mutations into the niaD gene of Aspergillus nidulans in order to identify residues involved in co-enzyme specificity. The niaD3000 mutation (NiaD T813D, K814Q) altered co-enzyme specificity: the new enzyme had high levels of NADH:NaR activity in vitro, whilst all NADPH-associated activity was lost. However, strains carrying this mutation did not grow on nitrate. Enzyme assays suggested that this was not due to inhibition of the mutant enzyme by NADPH. All revertants of the niaD3000 mutants had restored NADPH activity and lost NADH activity. Sequence analysis of these revertants showed that they all contained a single amino acid change at Asp-813, suggesting that this position is crucial to co-enzyme specificity. Further studies have shown that the mutant enzyme was not protected from deactivation by either co-factor in cell-free extracts (unlike the wild-type), and that induction of the glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase occurred independently of NADPH levels. These data highlight the importance of functional tests in vivo under physiological conditions.
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PMID:Structure-function analysis of NADPH:nitrate reductase from Aspergillus nidulans: analysis of altered pyridine nucleotide specificity in vivo. 1084 18


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