Gene/Protein Disease Symptom Drug Enzyme Compound
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Query: EC:1.1.1.37 (malate dehydrogenase)
 4,591 document(s) hit in 31,850,051 MEDLINE articles (0.00 seconds)

Glutamine synthetase (EC 6.3.1.2) was localized within the matrix compartment of avian liver mitochondria. The submitochondrial localization of this enzyme was determined by the digitonin-Lubrol method of Schnaitman and Greenawalt (35). The matrix fraction contained over 74% of the glutamine synthetase activity and the major proportion of the matirx marker enzymes, malate dehydrogenase (71%), NADP-dependent isocitrate dehydrogenase (83%), and glutamate dehydrogenase (57%). The highest specific activities of these enzymes were also found in the matrix compartment. Oxidation of glutamine by avian liver mitochondria was substantially less than that of glutamate. Bromofuroate, an inhibitor of glutamate dehydrogenase, blocked oxidation of glutamate and of glutamine whereas aminoxyacetate, a transaminase inhibitor, had little or no effect with either substrate. These results indicate that glutamine metabolism is probably initiated by the conversion of glutamine to glutamate rather than to an alpha-keto acid. The localization of a glutaminase activity within avian liver mitochondria plus the absence of an active mitochondrial glutamine transaminase is consistent with the differential effects of the transaminase and glutamate dehydrogenase inhibitors. The high glutamine synthetase activity (40:1) suggests that mitochondrial catabolism of glutamine is minimal, freeing most of the glutamine synthesized for purine (uric acid) biosynthesis.
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PMID:Submitochondrial localization and function of enzymes of glutamine metabolism in avian liver. 1 18

The activities of various ammoniagenic, gluconeogenic, and glycolytic enzymes were measured in the renal cortex and also in the liver of rats made diabetic with streptozotocin. Five groups of animals were studied: normal, normoglycemic diabetic (insulin therapy), hyperglycemic, ketoacidotic, and ammonium chloride treated rats. Glutaminase I, glutamate dehydrogenase, glutamine synthetase, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK), hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, fructose-1,6-diphosphatase, malate dehydrogenase, malic enzyme, and lactate dehydrogenase were measured. Renal glutaminase I activity rose during ketoacidosis and ammonium chloride acidosis. Glutamate dehydrogenase in the kidney rose only in ammonium chloride treated animals. Glutamine synthetase showed no particular variation. PEPCK rose in diabetic hyperglycemic animals and more so during ketoacidosis and ammonium chloride acidosis. It also rose in the liver of the diabetic animals. Hexokinase activity in the kidney rose in diabetic insulin-treated normoglycemic rats and also during ketoacidosis. The same pattern was observed in the liver of these diabetic rats. Renal and hepatic phosphofructokinase activities were elevated in all groups of experimental animals. Fructose-1,6-diphosphatase and malate dehydrogenase did not vary significantly in the kidney and the liver. Malic enzyme was lower in the kidney and liver of the hyperglycemic diabetic animals and also in the liver of the ketoacidotic rats. Lactate dehydrogenase fell slightly in the liver of diabetic hyperglycemic and NH4Cl acidotic animals. The present study indicates that glutaminase I is associated with the first step of increased renal ammoniagenesis during ketoacidosis. PEPCK activity is influenced both by hyperglycemia and ketoacidosis, acidosis playing an additional role. Insulin appears to prevent renal gluconeogenesis and to favour glycolysis. The latter would seem to remain operative in hyperglycemic and ketoacidotic diabetic animals.
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PMID:Renal enzymes during experimental diabetes mellitus in the rat. Role of insulin, carbohydrate metabolism, and ketoacidosis. 623 75

Freshly isolated viable rat hepatocytes were separated into five subpopulations on shallow discontinuous Percoll density gradients. The periportal marker enzymes alanine aminotransferase (ALT), malate dehydrogenase (MDH) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) showed gradients of increasing activity from the subpopulation of least density (band 1, rho = 1.07 g/ml) to the subpopulation of greatest density (band 5, rho = 1.09 g/ml). The perivenous marker enzymes pyruvate kinase (PK) and glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) showed gradients of decreasing activity from band-1 cells to band-5 cells. Glutamine synthetase (GS), which is confined to the two or three cell layers around the hepatic venule, was almost entirely restricted to band-1 hepatocytes. Band-5: band-1 ratios of enzyme activity were as follows: ALT, 8.0; LDH, 2.1; MDH, 1.6; GDH, 0.7; PK, 0.2; GS, 0.01. Band-5:band-1 ratios for ALT, LDH, PK and GS were maintained after culture of subpopulations in identical conditions for up to 72 h, whereas the ratios for MDH and GDH decreased and increased respectively towards unity. Band-1 hepatocytes exhibited greater cytotoxicity than band-5 cells after incubation with carbon tetrachloride or paracetamol. These perivenous-selective toxins produced greater decreases in cell viability and greater release of ALT and LDH from band-1 hepatocytes than from band-5 hepatocytes. Conversely, band-5 hepatocytes were more susceptible than band-1 hepatocytes to the cytotoxic effects of 1-naphthylisothiocyanate and methotrexate (known periportal-selective toxins). It is concluded that band-5 hepatocytes are enriched in periportal cells, whereas band-1 hepatocytes are enriched in perivenous cells. Isolation of hepatocyte subpopulations by Percoll density-gradient centrifugation has the considerable advantage that periportal and perivenous cells can be obtained from the same liver.
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PMID:Subpopulations of rat hepatocytes separated by Percoll density-gradient centrifugation show characteristics consistent with different acinar locations. 799 99

Glutamine synthetase (GS) and superoxide dismutase (SOD), large multimeric enzymes that are thought to play important roles in the pathogenicity of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, are among the bacterium's major culture filtrate proteins in actively growing cultures. Although these proteins lack a leader peptide, their presence in the extracellular medium during early stages of growth suggested that they might be actively secreted. To understand their mechanism of export, we cloned the homologous genes (glnA1 and sodA) from the rapid-growing, nonpathogenic Mycobacterium smegmatis, generated glnA1 and sodA mutants of M. smegmatis by allelic exchange, and quantitated expression and export of both mycobacterial and nonmycobacterial GSs and SODs in these mutants. We also quantitated expression and export of homologous and heterologous SODs from M. tuberculosis. When each of the genes was expressed from a multicopy plasmid, M. smegmatis exported comparable proportions of both the M. tuberculosis and M. smegmatis GSs (in the glnA1 strain) or SODs (in the sodA strain), in contrast to previous observations in wild-type strains. Surprisingly, recombinant M. smegmatis and M. tuberculosis strains even exported nonmycobacterial SODs. To determine the extent to which export of these large, leaderless proteins is expression dependent, we constructed a recombinant M. tuberculosis strain expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP) at high levels and a recombinant M. smegmatis strain coexpressing the M. smegmatis GS, M. smegmatis SOD, and M. tuberculosis BfrB (bacterioferritin) at high levels. The recombinant M. tuberculosis strain exported GFP even in early stages of growth and at proportions very similar to those of the endogenous M. tuberculosis GS and SOD. Similarly, the recombinant M. smegmatis strain exported bacterioferritin, a large (approximately 500-kDa), leaderless, multimeric protein, in proportions comparable to GS and SOD. In contrast, high-level expression of the large, leaderless, multimeric protein malate dehydrogenase did not lead to extracellular accumulation because the protein was highly unstable extracellularly. These findings indicate that, contrary to expectations, export of M. tuberculosis GS and SOD in actively growing cultures is not due to a protein-specific export mechanism, but rather to bacterial leakage or autolysis, and that the extracellular abundance of these enzymes is simply due to their high level of expression and extracellular stability. The same determinants likely explain the presence of other leaderless proteins in the extracellular medium of actively growing M. tuberculosis cultures.
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PMID:High extracellular levels of Mycobacterium tuberculosis glutamine synthetase and superoxide dismutase in actively growing cultures are due to high expression and extracellular stability rather than to a protein-specific export mechanism. 1155 79

The localization of enzymes responsible for nitrate assimilation and the generation of NADH for nitrate reduction were studied in corn (Zea mays L.) leaf blades. The techniques used effectively separated mesophyll and bundle sheath cells as judged by microscopic observations, enzymic assays, chlorophyll a/b ratios and photochemical activities. Nitrate reductase, nitrite reductase, and the nitrate content of leaf blades were localized primarily in the mesophyll cells, although some nitrite reductase was found in the bundle sheath cells. Glutamine synthetase, NAD-malate dehydrogenase, NAD-glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, and NADP-glutamate dehydrogenase were found in both types of cells, however, more NADP-glutamate dehydrogenase was found in the bundle sheath cells than in the mesophyll cells. These data indicate that the mesophyll cells are the major site for nitrate assimilation in the leaf blade because they contained an ample supply of nitrate and the enzymes considered essential for the assimilation of nitrate into amino acids. Because the specific activity of nitrate reductase was severalfold lower than the other enzymes involved in nitrate assimilation, nitrate reduction is indicated as the rate-limiting step in situ. A sequence of reactions is proposed for nitrate assimilation in the mesophyll cells of corn leaves as related to the C-4 pathway of photosynthesis.
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PMID:Pathway for Nitrate Assimilation in Corn (Zea mays L.) Leaves: Cellular Distribution of Enzymes and Energy Sources for Nitrate Reduction. 1666 May 71

Peroxiredoxins are antioxidative enzymes that catalyze the reduction of alkyl hydroperoxides to alcohols and hydrogen peroxide to water. 1-Cys peroxiredoxins (1-Cys Prxs) perform important roles during late seed development in plants. To characterize their biochemical functions in plants, a 1Cys-Prx gene was cloned from a Chinese cabbage cDNA library and designated as "C1C-Prx". Glutamine synthetase (GS) protection and hydrogen peroxide reduction assays indicated that C1C-Prx was functionally active as a peroxidase. Also C1C-Prx prevented the thermal- or chemical-induced aggregation of malate dehydrogenase and insulin. Hydrogen peroxide treatment changed the mobility of C1C-Prx on a two-dimensional gel, which implies overoxidation of the conserved Cys residue. Furthermore, after overoxidation, the chaperone activity of C1C-Prx increased approximately two-fold, but its peroxidase activity decreased to the basal level of the reaction mixture without enzyme. However, according to the structural analysis using far-UV circular dichroism spectra, intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence spectra, and native-PAGE, overoxidation did not lead to a conformational change in C1C-Prx. Therefore, our results suggest that 1-Cys Prxs function not only to relieve mild oxidative stresses but also as molecular chaperones under severe conditions during seed germination and plant development, and that overoxidation controls the switch in function of 1-Cys-Prxs from peroxidases to molecular chaperones.
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PMID:The 1-Cys peroxiredoxin, a regulator of seed dormancy, functions as a molecular chaperone under oxidative stress conditions. 2168 76